For this Discussion, answer one of the instructor-provided questions by 11:55 pm, ET, Friday and respond to 3 other students’ postings by 11:55 pm, ET, Sunday.
For this Discussion, answer one of the instructor-provided questions by 11:55 pm, ET, Friday and respond to 3 other students’ postings by 11:55 pm, ET, Sunday. You are also required to answer a follow-up question from your instructor. The follow-up post is due the following Sunday by 11:55 pm, ET. The follow-up answer should be posted in the discussion specifically set aside for that.
Please answer ONE of the following questions.
What was mercantilism? How did governments pursue mercantilist policies?
Describe the relationship between the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment. What influence did the Enlightenment have on the American Revolution?
How did the transatlantic slave trade develop? Describe its background.
This is considered to be a scholarly discussion. Unlike social media, it is good practice to include some form of reference to the sources of information because it strengthens the argument, but it is not required. You are also welcome to reference resources other than the course textbook.
The responses to 3 of your classmates should go beyond a standard, “I liked your post.” Try to select particular points, or examples and discuss them further. It is also appropriate for you to provide your reflections, opinions, additional examples, and information.
Introduction: Middle East – Laying the Foundations of the Islamic Empire
This is going to be a brief lecture on the beginning of the Islamic Empire, there is a lot of information out there; this is going to be a very condensed version. So, before the lecture gets underway, sit back and envision what it was like to live in the 19th Century Middle East. Two empires dominated the area: the Ottoman Empire, which encompassed Anatolia, all the Arab Provinces and most of North Africa and then the Qajar Empire (Kua jar) in Persia. This lecture is going to cover the social, economic and political aspects of the Islamic World. There will be a brief discussion on a few of the foundations of an Islamic empire; the leaders, religion, Sharia, etc. in general terms.
When the word leaders is mentioned, the most common titles that come to mind are kings, queens, presidents and prime ministers. Leaders of the Islamic world carry a different title, Sultan or Caliph depending on the area being studying. The Islamic world stretched from the Balkans to the Sudan and from Majhrib to Arabia. It took over the lands once under the Roman Empire. The Arabs set their sights on the Eastern Roman Empire, the the Byzantine.
The Sultan wore two hats, one of administrator of the empire and the other the religious head of the empire. As head of the empire and religious leader, the Sultan had one very important duty, he was the protector of the Islamic Holy cities, Mecca and Medina. This is one area where religion and government intertwine. This can be a benefit and a curse. While this may have been the case, Islam flourished.
Islam
For centuries, Islamic influence extended beyond its borders in the Middle East. It touched lives as far as Europe. As stated previously, it was one of the fastest growing religions and still is today; Muslims inhabit every corner of the world including the United States.
So, in order to understand the politics of Islam, the religion has to be considered. (Remember, this is a condensed lecture, there is more on Islam which is provided in other formats such as readings and videos.) The one issue that binds Muslims is their religion. Contrary to what many believe, Muslims believe in One God, the same God Christians and Jews believe in. The differences are name, Allah for Islam, and how they worship.
Every religion has a person that lay the foundations of the religion, for Jews its Abraham (there are others but Abraham is the most important) for Christians it is Jesus and for Muslims it is Mohammad. All three religions believe that the “creator of the world is omnipotent, omniscient, judge and merciful.”[1] For Muslims, Mohammad was and is the last prophet sent to earth by God. Muslims do believe in Jesus. Muslims believe he was a prophet and Muslims “accept all prophets of the Hebrew Bible, New Testament and Arab traditions.”[2]
As with all religions, Islam is no different, religious laws bind the group together. For the Muslims, they adhere to the Sharia, meaning “path”.[3] This is a “religious code for living… it is derived primarily from the Qur’an and the Sunna, [which is the teachings, practices and sayings of Mohammad]. It developed over several hundred years after the death of Mohammad…Since he is considered to be the most pious, his way of life is a model for all Muslims.”[4] The Qur’an is the word of God “as reveal by the Angel Gabriel to Mohammad.”[5] The Sharia was a major part of the Empire which kept them a unit if not politically then spiritually and morally. It also gave details on marriage, custody, inheritance and divorce.[6]
As with all religions, there are major divisions based on the interpretation of their Holy Books. Islam was the exception at first. The division was created not over interpretation of the Qur’an. The division was due to the absence of Mohammad‘s instruction on who would lead them once he passed. A little over a decade of ruling, Mohammad suddenly died and left no direction on who was to lead. Out of the grief suffered by his followers emerged two groups of thinking, the Shia who believed their ruler was to be a direct descendant of Mohammad.[7] The Sunni, on the other hand, believed that Mohammad wanted a qualified ruler to be elected by their peers.[8]
ii
To this day, Muslims still are divided along these lines, there are divisions within these groups as well, but not group dynamics instead interpretation. The division deals with how Muslims interpret the texts.
While faith bounds all Muslims, the Sultan protected the Holy lands, the states and the extended areas in their empire. However, states such as South East Asia to Morocco had their own political agenda and they challenged the established order. So it’s of no surprise that the Islamic Empire goes through many transformations.
What are some of the Islamic characteristics? A brief overview of the early Islamic Civilization, Khadija and some Islamic contributions gives a good understanding of how this civilization came together.
Islamic Characteristics
Unity and Open-minded
Unity is an aspect in all societies but in the Islamic society, it was very important especially in the early days of Islam. History of the Arab people is quite unique. Most if not all Muslims and Arabs can trace their heritage back to the Bedouin. For the Bedouin unity was important. When you were part of the tribe, you were protected. If your tribe turned you away, you were considered an outcast and were in danger of losing your life. This is what happened to Mohammad and his followers. When Mohammad’s uncle passed away, there was no one to protect him and he became an outcast of the Quaresh Tribe. They tried to kill Mohammad and his followers. They were able to survive because they united together in their culture and convictions.
An important aspect of unity for Muslims is the idea of social justice. It was a message that Mohammad preached and lived. There were no racial or ethnic discrimination; in Mohammad’s eyes, everyone was equal. One other aspect of unity was nation building. Mohammad looked to past civilizations and built upon them as well as his predecessors.
When Mohammad passed, it was up to his predecessors to build upon his foundation of an Islamic state. In doing so, the Islamic Civilization imported views in science and learning as long as it did not conflict with the views of their religion. They cultivated the arts and sciences. All peoples both Muslims and non-Muslims worked together to advance learning to benefit everyone. Islam stimulated not only those living as Muslims but all people to think and participate culturally and socially, especially all the societies that came under their control. Arabic was the major intellectual and scientific language of the world. Their whole society was and still is based on family, sisterhood and brotherhood which replaced the tribe, race and even language.
Brief Background – Islamic Civilization – 661
The Islamic Civilization was established in 661 AD after the death of Mohammad; some historians will argue that the Civilization came during his rule and not afterwards. All can agree that the empire survived a 1000 years but there will be a split in ideology when Mohammad died which resulted in two groups, the Sunni and Shia sects (discussed in an earlier lecture).
The first Islamic Dynasty to rule after Mohammad‘s death was the Umayyad. They ruled for approximately 100 years and established their capital in Damascus. The Abbasid Dynasty came next. They ruled for approximately 500 years. Under their rule, they moved the capital to Baghdad. It is during this time Baghdad became the Jewel of the Learning in the Middle East. This is important because people/historians/students from all over the world from all backgrounds came to Baghdad to study, discuss, write and debate the thoughts of those from Antiquity forward. The Abbasid rule ended at the hands of the Mongols who came in and destroyed Baghdad in 1258.
Wait a minute! Didn’t Mohammad died in 632 AD? Yes he did. So what happened in this 30 year span since the death of Mohammad and the beginning of the Empire, what transpired during this time? With the death of Mohammad, the Islamic nation was grief stricken. They mourned for days and finally when the mourning ended, Mohammad‘s relatives took over. Under their guidance, they set in motion the social, political and religious tone and institutions that guided the Islamic Civilization for the next 1000 years. These first rulers of Islam were known and are still known as the Patriarchal Caliphs of Islam. The next few lectures will discuss those first rulers.
Abu Bakr
iii
Abu Bakr (Abdullah Ibn Abi Quhafah) was the first to take over when Mohammad died. He was elected by his peers since Mohammad did not leave any indication on who would rule after his death. He was the first in four caliphs that ruled in what is known as the Rashidun Caliphate. It is during this period that the Islamic Civilization grew not only in land but power economically, culturally and militarily.
Abu Bakr was not only Mohammad’s father-in-law but his closest confident and childhood friend. He was from the Banu Taym clan. Abu Bakr was one of the first to convert to Islam and became the financial benefactor of Mohammad’s work. He was a military genius and accompanied Mohammad in the important battles that gave rise to Islam, especially the battles at Badr and Uhud. Abu Bakr wanted to complete Mohammad’s dream, to expand Islam into the Byzantine Empire. (The map above shows the proximity of the Islamic Empire to the Byzantine Empire.)
The Byzantine Empire, after their war with the Persians, turned to Arabia to expand their empire. At one time, Arabia was not unified but under Mohammad he unified the Arabian Peninsula under his control. There were many battles between the Christians and the Muslims. There are many contradictory accounts of Mohammad clashing with the Byzantium Army at Mu’tah, Ghassanids and even the Lakhmids of Al-Hirah. While Mohammad was alive, he did send a letter to the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius to sway him to convert to Islam. He thoughts were as follows:
“In the name of God, the Beneficial, the Merciful. This letter is from Muhammad the slave of God and his Messenger to Heraclius, the ruler of the Byzantines. Peace be upon him who follow the right path.
I am writing this invitation to call you to Islam. If you become a Muslim you will be safe – and God will double your reward, but if you reject this invitation of Islam you will bear the sin of having misguided your subjects. Thus do I urge you to heed the following:
O People of the Scriptures! Come to a word common to you and us that we worship none but Allah and we associate nothing in worship with Him, and that none of us shall take others as Lords beside Allah. Then if they turn away, say: Bear witness that we are Muslims…. Muhammad, the Messenger of God.”[9]
Mohammad’s intention was to take the Byzantine Empire, trying first through diplomacy, peaceful means. If they refused then Mohammad would take the Byzantine through war. Mohammad did not live long enough to do this task so it was Abu Bakr who took on this task.
Mohammad’s death was a shock to the Islamic world. Abu Bakr main goal was to take away attention from Mohammad‘s death and focus it on the immediate matters of the empire. What better way was to do this by engaging in battle?
As with many plans, there are snags. This was no different with the intentions of Abu Bakr. When the Arabian tribes learned of Mohammad‘s death, they revolted. The alliances Mohammad had once created were now in trouble. This period of Islamic history is known as the al-Ridda or The Apostasy. The map below shows the battles undertaken by Abu Bakr to bring Arabia back to its peaceful state under Islam.
The tribal leaders’ intentions were to kill all those who followed the teachings of Mohammad. Once all were dead, the memory of Mohammad would be gone. Due to this, Bakr felt an urgency to get Mohammad’s revelations down on paper and he commissioned Umar and Zay b. Thabit, Mohammad’s scribe, with this task.[10]
Once the Arabian Peninsula was peaceful, Bakr continued with Mohammad’s plan to spread Islam. During his short reign of 27 months, he brought Iraq (Sassanid Empire) under the Islamic realm and before he could take Persia, he died. His successor was Umar 634-644.
Abu Bakr set in motion the historical trajectory that in just a few decades the Islamic Empire became one of the largest empires in history. He also began the process of putting Mohammad’s revelation down on paper which would later become the Qur’an.[11]
Ummar (Umar)
Making sure no mistake or speculations were made on who would rule after his death, Abu Bakr announced that Umar was to be his successor. Umar was a political genius with a military background, something quite unusual at this time. Umar was from the same tribe as Mohammad, the Quraysh. He was about ten years younger than Mohammad.[12]
Umar (Abd Allah ibn Umar Ibn al-Khattab) was an ardent opponent of Mohammad’s teachings. He had vowed to kill Mohammad in 616.[13] This was the norm for all those who did not abide or ran amuck the tribal laws and Mohammad did just that when he began the practice of Islam. However, at this time, Mohammad was under the protection of his uncle until his death in 619.[14] Once his uncle passed, and Mohammad had no protection, Umar sought him out by first visiting the home of his sister and her husband.[15] It was here after an argument with his sister that he read a Quranic verse and converted.[16] He then became a follower of Mohammad. This was a surprise due to his adamant opposition to Mohammad but not enough to help Mohammad escape retaliation since his protector, his uncle passed away. Umar left the tribe with Mohammad and made their journey to Medina.[17]
Umar continued with the expansion of the empire. He targeted lands once controlled by the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires. By the time Umar was finished, Persia, Syria, all of Mesopotamia under the Islamic realm. (See Map Below)
In conjunction with his conquests, he began to build the political and administrative structure of the Empire. Under his rule, those who were conquered and believers of God as well as those following Zoroastrianism did not have to convert to Islam but unbelievers were not given this option. They either had to convert to Islam or face death or become slaves. He allowed the conquered people (believers) to keep their way of life – religion, language, customs and government. Of course, there were stipulations, they had to pay tribute and acknowledge Islam was the ruling empire. The only part of Islam in their life was the Amir (Emir) and the Amil, the governor and the financial officer over their areas.
Umar also created the financial structure of the Empire. He understood that you needed to have a stable financial institution in order for an empire to survive. He created a fair taxation system. He started a welfare system “provide for widows, orphans, the poor, the elderly and disabled.”[18] He brought the military under state control which meant a loyal military to the leader of the empire. He established an independent judiciary where judges were appointed for life.
During his rule, he took the revelations that were put on paper in Abu Bakr’s term and bound them together. He created the Muslim calendar based on the Arabian calendar (Arabian Calendar is a lunar calendar). He modified the calendar to start with Mohammad‘s migration to Medina as year one. Umar met his fate at the hands of assassins, Persian conspirators who wanted revenge for the Arab conquest of their empire.[19] Before Umar died, he created a 6-man panel to choose his successor. Their choice had to be unanimous and if not his son was to kill those members who refused a consensus vote.[20] The panel choose three, Uthman B. Affan, an Umayyad, Abd al-Rahman b. Awf and Ali Ben Abu Talib, the son in law of Mohammad.
The Empire was in the hands of the panel and two men were submitted as suitable rulers: Uthman, an Umayyad and Ali Ben Abu Talib, the son in law of Mohammad.[21] The choice came down to Ali and Uthman. The panel after much deliberation, choose Uthman.
Uthman was one of Mohammad’s first converts and a close friend of Abu Bakr and served as his military advisor.[22] He was from the Umayyad clan of the Quraysh Tribe.[23] He was instrumental on two “recommendations [during Umar’s reign]: some money coming into treasury from conquests be held back rather than distributed as booty and that new conquered lands retain their by their previous owners and taxed whenever possible, instead of confiscated and distributed to soldiers as booty.”[24] This allowed for a more peaceful empire and thwart any future revolts from the conquered. As leader, he brought Libya and North Africa under Islamic Control.
v
Uthman expanded upon the administration. He “relaxed prohibitions on buying and selling property in newly conquered territories and opened the public treasury for lending… this increased trade and revenue for the treasury.”[25] He created the mint to create money. He divided the empire into 12 provinces. Each province was “divided into districts with a governor, chief judge and tax collector appointed to each district.”[26] Finally, he standardized the Qur’an. His downfall was corruption. While Umar put in place no acceptance of gifts for any government official, Uthman relaxed that policy, which made it look as if he and his administration were receiving bribes.[27] Secondly, nepotism ran rapid in his administration. He put his kinsmen in important positions throughout the empire.[28] Due to his laid back style of government and the sense of political freedom, tribal factions began to form once again. Medina will be the first to rebel and others will follow. He was assassinated as he was reading from the first bound Koran that he commissioned.
It was after this that Ali Ben Abu Talib became the next leader. As the son in law of Mohammad, Ali is the first Imam and was liked among the Sunni and the Shia. He stabilized the empire and tried to bring it into the path in which Mohammad would have wanted. It is during his rule that the Al Fitna happened and the Umayyad came into power.
The first four caliphs are the rightly guided caliphs in the eyes of the Sunni and are revered. In the eyes of the Shia, they are the Usurpers. As time passed, the Islamic Empire formed and the Muslims borrowed much from the governments of the Byzantine Empire, Egypt, Syria and the Sassanid’s of Persia.
Khadija
Contrary to the belief of many, women were an important part of Mohammad’s world. Mohammad saw the importance of women in society. His wife Khadija was the first to convert to Islam. She was quite a unique woman. She was Mohammad‘s supporter and confidant.
In this man‘s world, Khadija stood out. She was a wealthy merchant and was respected within her clan. She married twice before Mohammad with both her husband’s meeting their death in the wars between the Arabian tribes. She inherited their wealth and businesses. She used her money to help feed and clothe the poor and help her kin marry – those who did not have the means to provide a dowry, she did.
She heard of Mohammad and knew he was a distant cousin. She heard good things about him and the way he conducted business, he was trusted in the world of trade. She summoned him to take a trip to Syria to do her business for at this time because women were not allowed to travel unescorted. His trips for her were very successful as she employed him on many occasions. She was smitten with him so much so that she proposed marriage even though Mohammad was 15 years younger. She followed his every move; when Mohammad rejected idol worship of his ancestors, Khadija did as well. Unlike many of her clan, Khadija never believe in idol worship. She was familiar with Christianity and Judaism.
Women
Once again, contrary to many of the writings, as I noted above, Mohammad saw the importance of women in society. They were spiritually, sexually, economically and educationally equal to men. In the early periods of Islamic society, they had active roles in economics, religion and politics. Women owned property, they had the freedom to travel and they participated in public religious rituals and observances. Many women became martyrs in the name of Islam, many women fought in battles to defend Islam. Mohammad, himself, (after the death of Khadijah) had 8 wives and each had a role either being his closest confidant or politically active. This will change and by the 10th Century, women no longer enjoyed the rights their predecessors did. Her status depended upon her husband’s financial status. Her responsibilities were limited to the home and her children. Her children were her responsibility. She exercised authority over them and enjoyed their respect. She ensured the continuation of the generations. She disciplined and educated her children and she passed on the cultural and religious traditions of their household.
Trade and Commerce
Muslims were not farmers. They did not trade in grain, and they considered agricultural business beneath them. They were merchants and they traded with everyone. Trade promoted technological advances such as Navigation, Shipbuilding and Cartography. If you look at the Muslim economy of the time, you will see hints of capitalistic features: they had money, they had private ownership, they had the means of production and they made profits.
The last part of this lecture is a list of some of the Islamic contributions to society.
slamic Contributions to Society
- Analytical Geometry and Algebra
- Ibn e Farnas was the first to construct and test a flying apparatus in 800 AD
- Ibn e Farnas constructed the first precision time keeping device
- Venetian glassmaking came from the Syrians
- Islam expanded on the idea of papermaking from the Chinese
- Ibn Al Hatitham discovered light rays and inertia 600 years prior to Newton
- Abu Rehan al Biruni discovered mass 500 years prior to the French
- Al Battani discovered Trigonometry
- Decimal notation was discovered by Kashani not Simon Stevens from Denmark
- Logarithms were used by Muslims for many centuries before Napier was given the accreditation for this discovery
- They were the first to use pyrotechnic warfare
- Chemistry was started by the Muslims
- Medical advances were numerous some are listed below:
- Caesarian sections
- Cures for kidney stones
- Surgery to remove cataracts
The following Bibliography and Suggested Readings and Websites are at the end.“Basic Beliefs of Islam,”RelS201 Class Notes on Islam, http://people.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/I_Transp/IO4_QuranBeliefs.html.
ii “The Sunni-Shia Divide,” Council on Foreign Relations (2014-2016), http://www.cfr.org/peace-conflict-and-human-rights/sunni-shia-divide/p33176#!/?cid=otr-marketing_url-sunni_shia_infoguide.
iii Derek Davison, “Islamic History, Part 8: The Caliphate of Abu Bakr (632-634), attwiw.com (May 31, 2013) https://attwiw.com/2013/05/31/islamic-history-part-8-the-caliphate-of-abu-bakr-632-634/.
iv Derek Davison, “Islamic History, Part 9: The Caliphate of Umar b. al-Khattab (634-644).” And That’s The Way It Was (June 17, 2013) https://attwiw.com/2013/06/17/islamic-history-part-9-the-caliphate-of-umar-b-al-khattab-634-644/
v Derek Davison, “Islamic History, Part 10: the Caliphate of Uthman b. Affan (644-656), and the Seeds of Civil War,” And That’s The Way It Was (July 15, 2013) https://attwiw.com/2013/07/15/islamic-history-part-10-the-caliphate-of-uthman-b-affan-644-656-and-the-seeds-of-civil-war/.
vi Ibid.
Please Watch the Following Videos
The Sunni Shia Divide
The History of Islam: The Reign of Abu Bakr
Collepals.com Plagiarism Free Papers
Are you looking for custom essay writing service or even dissertation writing services? Just request for our write my paper service, and we'll match you with the best essay writer in your subject! With an exceptional team of professional academic experts in a wide range of subjects, we can guarantee you an unrivaled quality of custom-written papers.
Get ZERO PLAGIARISM, HUMAN WRITTEN ESSAYS
Why Hire Collepals.com writers to do your paper?
Quality- We are experienced and have access to ample research materials.
We write plagiarism Free Content
Confidential- We never share or sell your personal information to third parties.
Support-Chat with us today! We are always waiting to answer all your questions.