What are some ways in which teachers might continue to educate themselves about new methods related to prejudice reduction while simultaneously keeping up with student needs and school requirements, especially when time is such a problem?
Assigment – answer each with 8 sentences more where appropriate – Apa references – the reflective questions are also highlighted within the chapters in the book.
Book citation
Cushner, K. H. (2021). Human Diversity in Education (10th ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education (US).
Chapter 6 (this chapter has an excellent activity to check out) What Does it Feel Like to be Excluded
Creating Classrooms That Address Race and Ethnicity – submit responses to all reflection questions
Reflective Questions
1. What are some ways in which teachers might continue to educate themselves about new methods related to prejudice reduction while simultaneously keeping up with student needs and school requirements, especially when time is such a problem?
2. What experiences have you had in educational institutions that were effective at developing positive intergroup relations? What aspects of the contact hypothesis were evident?
3. If a close friend or family member were to make a prejudiced comment or tell an ethnic joke, would you protest? Why or why not? What about if it was a stranger who said the same thing? What if it was about a group of which you were a member?
Chapter 7
The Classroom a Global Community: Nationality and Region – submit responses to questions 1, 2, and 3
The Case Study teacher, Nate Kozlowski, developed a number of activities and curricular redesigns that infused global awareness into his sixth-grade curriculum. Still, he is bothered by several aspects of his work.
Reflective Questions
1. How can he continue to educate himself about new methods of global education while simultaneously keeping up with student needs and school requirements? Time is definitely a problem.
2. He knows that the United States is a widely diverse country with many unsolved problems regarding race and ethnicity. How can he justify moving to a global perspective when the problems at home remain so critical?
3. Although he has been relatively successful in incorporating a global perspective into social studies, language arts, and some of the arts, how can he do the same with such seemingly culture-neutral subjects as mathematics and science?
Chapter 6
Chapter 6
Creating Classrooms That Address Race and Ethnicity
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Focus Questions
Do you believe all people are prejudiced? If so, in what ways do you display prejudice?
Did you hear messages about certain groups of people as you grew up that you no longer support? How did you come to change your beliefs or point of view?
How are factors of racism and prejudice evident in schools? In your community? In your nation?
What behaviors are effective when dealing with people who hold extreme prejudices? What actions might teachers take to reduce prejudice in their students?
“Prejudice is a great time saver. You can form opinions without having to get the facts.”
E. B. WHIT
Case Study
The Chameleon
The syllabus for Professor Adams’ diversity class showed that a guest speaker was scheduled to present late one afternoon toward the end of the semester. The class had known about it since the start of the course, and were thus all expected to attend, even though it was not during their regular class time. The session was titled “Meet John Gray: The Importance of Race and the Impact of Color,” and was to be held in the college auditorium. Professor Adams had invited Mr. Gray to campus after seeing him do a presentation the previous year at a regional conference on multicultural education. Mr. Gray had agreed to do the program on campus, but only if persons in positions of authority, including the Dean of the College, his Assistant Deans, as well as other professors and other students, would also attend—hence the large audience and the need for the auditorium.
John Gray arrived on the planned day with plenty of time to have a cup of coffee with Professor Adams, meet informally with the Dean, and to arrange the auditorium for his needs. Professor Adams welcomed the more than 200 students and faculty.
“This morning we have a speaker who will use a teaching approach known as psychodrama to help us explore issues related to prejudice and racism,” Dr. Adams began. “Mr. John Gray is a former personnel manager with a major Fortune 500 company and has degrees from a couple of prestigious Ivy League schools. Please join me in welcoming Mr. Gray to our campus.”
John Gray approached the stage as the students applauded. He was quite distinguished looking, really the picture of a rather successful, polite, white business executive. He stood more than 6 feet tall and wore a gray business suit, white shirt, and red tie. His hair was straight and graying, and he had rather angular and prominent facial features.
He began in a pleasant manner, smiling and stating that he had not come with any kind of prepared speech. He would, instead, just share some ideas with the students and allow for some open discussion. But he did make some rather pointed comments. “I’ll begin this morning by saying that if you are silent with me, I will be making three assumptions about you and the silence. One, if you are silent, that tells me that you understand everything I am saying. Two, silence tells me that you agree with whatever I am saying. And three, silence tells me that you support what I am saying. Is this clear?” He paused.
“The only way I’ll know anything different is if you break the silence. You see, silence, to me, is very critical. Silence suggests inaction, and that inaction, in a sense, becomes a form of action.”
He waited again and took in the audience’s silence. “So, you all just sent me the message that you understood what I just said, that you agreed with what I said, and that you supported me by your silence,” he concluded.
There was some light laughter and apparent nervousness among the audience. A crucial contract had just been entered into with the group.
“Like any good teacher,” Gray began, “I use three instructional approaches. You might think of these in terms of how you learn to do complex things, let’s say learning to ride a bike. When I use the lecture method, I tell you about riding. Now this approach may transfer a significant amount of useful information, but it does not provide you with the opportunity to practice the appropriate actions. Would you learn how to ride the bike? Probably not! The second approach I call the ‘show-me’ approach. I can demonstrate for you how to ride a bike. This approach may enable you to see what is expected, but once again, it probably will not result in you learning how to ride. There just is no opportunity to practice the skill. Now the third approach I call is the ‘involve-me’ approach. Once you are involved, you really do begin to learn.”
Gray went on. “Since many of you are taking a diversity course this semester, I’d like to talk a bit about the concept of prejudice and give you a few examples of how people’s preferences, or prejudices, can become problematic if they are extended and applied to all people.”
“For instance, I may have a prejudice or preference toward apple pie, but I don’t necessarily think that all people should have only apple pie. At the same time, I don’t believe that other people have the right to tell me what flavor pie to eat.”
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He continued. “However, if Dean Johnson went around and told all the students that they could eat only apple pie or they would be punished, then Dean Johnson would be combining his prejudice for apple pie with his power and would be discriminating against a certain group of people—cherry pie eaters, for instance. Then,” Gray said, “we get into a thing called ‘pie-ism.’ Now that’s when people and institutions, like schools, get into conflict. And then, the silence has to be broken.”
Gray posed a question to students. “How many of you think you are prejudiced?” Only a few hands went up. “Well, I, for one, think you are all prejudiced and that you are ignoring the reality in yourself. I think it’s important that we recognize that we all have certain information about other people that we have been taught that may not be accurate, but yet we continue to act upon this information as if it is the truth.”
There was silence in the room.
“So, if I go by the silence, you are all agreeing with me. See, you are all prejudiced, you just weren’t willing to admit it earlier.”
Suddenly a student in the middle of the auditorium from a different class raised his hand. Gray called on the student, who then rose to speak.
“I don’t think you can get away with calling me prejudiced,” said the student. “I have many Black and Hispanic friends, and I’m not alone. Many others in this university have friends from different backgrounds.”
“Oh, I know where you are coming from,” replied Gray. “You’re just showing off in front of your friends to let them know how liberal you are. You can’t fool most of us—we know your kind.”
The student sat down quietly. Others in the room began to fidget in their seats. A female student then jumped up to defend the boy.
“How can you say that about him, you don’t even know him? I think you’re being prejudiced!” she challenged.
“You may be partially correct,” replied Gray, “but I also know where you’re coming from. Tell me,” he asked, “are you Jewish?”
“No, I am not,” she answered. “And why is that important?”
Because I am a Christian; a good Christian; and I think if Jews want to believe in a God other than Jesus Christ, they should go back to Israel where they belong.”
The students grew restless and agitated.
“How can you say such a thing? What does that have to do with anything?” another student blurted out.
“What, may I ask, do you want to be when you finish school?” asked Gray.
“A teacher first, but maybe later a politician,” she replied.
“Oh, I don’t think I’d spend my time doing that if I were you,” he quickly responded. “Women can never really hold positions of authority and power because they are generally much more emotional than men. And there are many studies that prove that. In fact, a recent research study undertaken at the University of California at Berkeley—you know of it, I assume—stated that without a doubt, women are more prone to tears and cry more when under pressure. No one can be a successful leader when their emotions get in the way, and women have that problem all the time—just look at how you are acting with me. Now you wouldn’t want a leader to behave like this, would you? And I know that some of you in the audience will differ with me, but that’s all right. That’s your choice.”
A few in the audience laughed. Two students who were close to the back got up to walk out, and Dean Johnson approached them and quietly asked them to return to their seats.
“You know what really bothers me?” Gray continued without seeming to miss a beat, “is that affirmative action order. That order told me that I had to hire a certain number of minorities and women in my organization, and I resented that. I didn’t like being forced into anything, especially having to hire people who could not do the job.”
A Black male student jumped in. “What do you mean by people who couldn’t do the job?”
“Well, you know,” replied Gray. “Your people have trouble passing certain competency tests. Take teacher tests, for instance. Your people just can’t pass those tests at the same rate that white teachers do. And you want to be teachers and teach my children? I think there’s some-thing terribly wrong with affirmative action. It’s getting to the point where my children have to have a card saying they were minority or female before they could be considered for a job. That’s just not right.”
The students were silent.
“So, I felt that I had to break the silence and fight back. I thought that I should try to reach as many young people as I could in schools and universities because you are our future. I want to encourage you to speak out. Young man, may I ask you where you are from? You do have a bit of an accent.”
“Well actually, I’m from Africa,” he replied. “Nigeria to be exact, although my family is working on getting our American citizenship.”
“Well, let me suggest something to you. You’re in a good university. When you learn to speak like a good American, then I can look to you as a good American who can understand what I’m trying to say. Why don’t you solve the problems that you have in Africa before coming here and getting so upset with me? I’m beginning to see why there is so much fuss about multicultural and bilingual education. How many of you speak English as your first language, might I ask?”
Most in the audience sat silently as all of their hands went up.
“And what is this particular university doing to promote diversity?” Gray asked.
Dean Johnson jumped in. “Mr. Gray, I promised you academic freedom. But please try to keep your comments from getting personal and accusatory in nature. Students, if you have questions to ask of Mr. Gray, you can do that now. You don’t have to wait for a question-and-answer period; but do ask one at a time.”
“Well, I think that as a group you’re showing disrespect for me,” Gray continued, directing his comments toward Dean Johnson and the other administrators. “Maybe I’m wasting my time with you. I really resent the way I’ve been treated. I don’t know if you planted people in the audience to attack me, but I resent the laughter I’ve heard as well as some of the putdowns from those of you who may have a view that differs from mine. I’ve got better things to do than to stay here with you. No wonder you’re having all these troubles with diversity in schools. I really resent the way I’ve been treated.”
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And with that, Mr. Gray picked up his materials and walked off the stage. The students applauded as he left.
After Gray left the stage, Professor Adams approached the microphone. “I guess the lecture is over, and by the sounds of it, there are many people who have many things they’d like to say. I suggest we get together with your professors, discuss what we have all just experienced. Then, perhaps, we can all come back together before we all go home and share our experience.”
Samantha and Carl sat in the audience dumbstruck. Carl, who all along had been skeptical about having to take this class leaned over toward Sam and said, “Wow! Who does he think he is?” And Sam, trying to talk, just sputtered. “Who, indeed! Why in the world did Professor Adams invite him to talk to us? What’s the matter with this guy? What’s this all about?” Eventually, the two got out of their seats and returned to their own class where they found their classmates all talking at once and all pretty worked up.
If you had been in that class, and had attended John Gray’s presentation, what would you have thought?
Note This case study concludes with some very important additional information contained in the critical incidents at the end of the chapter. It is based on the video program Chameleon by John Gray and Associates; and on a section from the book A Country of Strangers: Blacks and Whites in America, by David K. Shipler (New York: Vintage Books, 1997).
Lay Versus Scientific Understanding of Race and Ethnicity
This chapter’s Case Study vividly illustrates issues of racism and prejudice in action. It also provides a context in which to apply some of the 18 culture-general themes introduced in Chapter 4. For instance, in addition to raising the issue of prejudice, what attributions do you think the students were making about John Gray? What judgments were you making about John Gray as you read the Case Study? How would you react in the presence of someone like him? Would you be experiencing some anxiety? How would you communicate with such a person?
Teaching in the 21st Century: Who Are the Students?
As was noted in Chapter 1, the demographics of the American population have changed considerably over the years and continue to do so in the 21st century. It is predicted that by 2050, the European American population will be about 47%, and more than a quarter of the population will be Hispanic. By 2056, the average U.S. resident will trace his or her descent to Africa, Asia, Central and South America, the Pacific Islands, or the Middle East—almost anywhere but white Europe (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010), and people of color will be in the majority.
Teachers and school administrators who understand the deep-seated influence that race and ethnicity play in people’s lives do not shy away from confronting these issues. On the contrary, they understand the role race plays, both in the lives of individuals and in society at large. Interculturally competent teachers are aware, curious, and interested in ways to provide significant guidance, support, and structure to classroom and school environments that encourage new interactions and opportunities for all to openly discuss and learn about race and ethnicity. In the words of Mansella and Jackson (2011), “They …. recognize multiple perspectives, [communicate] their views effectively, and [take] action to improve conditions.” In short, they are open to new ideas and are willing to incorporate issues of race and ethnicity into their thinking and their teaching.
The Work of Teachers and Students
In classrooms that actively address issues related to race and ethnicity, teachers in part adopt the role of agents of change. They reach out to individuals as well as to community organizations that represent various ethnic and racial group’s perspectives and experiences, bringing authentic voices into the classroom while building necessary bridges between young people and the community. Not only are students exposed to alternative perspectives, they also interact with community representatives who are actively working to change the status quo. Students, for their part, find their own opportunities to work in the community, often on projects that improve people’s lives. While so engaged, students become carriers of new information that they can bring back to the classroom, serving as teachers, themselves. Such activities model for young people and others the desired outcomes of a multicultural curriculum, principally the skills and attitudes needed to become proactive agents of change. Thus, the work of teachers and students (and parents and community members) in the classroom begins to reinforce attitudes and values that weave together issues of race and ethnicity with the real lives of teachers, students, and the community as a whole. In so doing, all begin to reflect aspects of the developmental level of Adaptation discussed in Chapter 5.
Knowledge as a Tool in the Classroom
Knowledge, as we know, is constantly changing, either by the addition of new knowledge in a field of study, or in the interpretation of knowledge based on new attitudes or contexts. Thus, in recent years, race, like ethnicity, has been viewed less as a biological reality and more as a cultural construct (Kottack & Kozaitis, 1999). Both biological reality and cultural constructs are functions of the categorization process discussed in Chapter 4. Americans, like all people, categorize things in numerous ways, and the use of the term race is no exception. People may categorize themselves, or be categorized by others, according to such factors as language, religion, geography, history, ancestry, or physical traits. Think of the range of socializing agents presented in Chapter 3.
When people assume that an ethnic group has a biological basis, they are referring to that group as a race based on some understanding of the knowledge called biology. However, there is increasing evidence that race has no biological basis. Indeed, with the advent of the field of microbiology, and up to the mapping of DNA sequences, it is the case that all varieties of the human species are between 99.5% and 99.9% the same. Sometimes, that 0.1% or 0.5% is important, for example, differences in blood type. Yet even with that difference, we are still 99.9% like all other humans.
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The concept of race is intended to reflect the shared genetic material, or genotype, within a group of people. Most people, however, scholars included, tend to use phenotype traits, visible traits such as skin color, to classify people according to a given race. There is, of course, little agreement on which phenotypic characteristics should be emphasized among culture groups. Skin color, the most apparent difference to early scientists, thus became the criterion most often used. It is still not uncommon to find textbooks that present the three great races as distinct from one another—white, Black, and yellow—an idea used as a power mechanism to keep white European colonizers separate (and above) their Asian and African subjects. Attempts to make these groupings sound more scientific—by using terms such as Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid—cloud the reality that white people are really various shades of pink, beige, or tan; Black people are various shades of brown; and so-called yellow people are really various shades of tan or beige.
Race as a cultural construct, however, is quite alive; yet again, cultures vary in the way in which race is construed. In the United States, racial identity is acquired at birth as an ascribed status, not based on simple biology. Consider the child of two parents, one of whom is African American and the other a European American. It is obvious that half the child’s genetic material comes from each parent. However, American culture classifies the child as Black, although it makes just as much sense to classify the child as white. In such a case, heredity is overlooked. To confound the situation even more, racial categorization can vary from state to state. For instance, in some states, any person with any African American heritage will be classified as Black. Such a situation is referred to as hypodescent (where hypo means “lower”) because it automatically places the child in a minority group (Kottack & Kozaitis, 1999).
Recent studies of the human genome (Gibbons, 2017), show that biologically, the genes for both light and dark skin color originated in Africa, were in the animal genome before homosapiens ever evolved, continued as humans evolved, and are currently still in Africa as well as in every other place in the world. Attributing behavior, or other characteristics of a group of people by relying on “old” biological knowledge is fruitless. Rather, it is the ways in which a culture places race in behavioral categories that is the point to remember. Knowledge of current biological findings, as well as of the history of common cultural ideas about race today, can be used as tools with which teachers can further students’ understanding of at least some of the reality of the lives of all racial groups.
Evaluating the Results of Teaching and Learning
Evaluation (or assessment) of the results of teaching and learning across cultural, racial, and ethnic boundaries has been a sensitive issue. Traditional cross-cultural research literature is filled with numerous studies that report the unfortunate but common practice of taking an assessment instrument developed and normed on one cultural group and using it with little or no modification in another cultural setting. Such use more often than not results in inaccurate judgments of test-takers because:
Certain concepts that are important in one culture may be missed by some instruments.
Procedures developed in one country or culture (or even one part of a larger country) may not be appropriate for use in another cultural setting.
It may be assumed that all people share in certain experiences that are not, in fact, universally practiced.
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All of this, of course, doesn’t begin to address the need to provide many different kinds of evaluations—tests, performances, actions, and other assorted kinds of assessment for students and teachers in order to truly understand what’s going on in the teaching/learning process with individuals who differ in one way or another.
Evaluation that is sensitive to the role of race, ethnicity, and culture considers the sociocultural context of the learner and the learner’s family as well as that of the examiner, and addresses such issues as biases, stereotypes, and prior experience as well as the selection of appropriate evaluation procedures. Awareness of these issues enhances the possibility of more relevant and culturally sensitive evaluation. In addition, issues related to language and its complexities must also be considered when selecting and conducting evaluations. The teacher who is sensitive to racial and ethnic concerns also struggles to understand that people display strengths and talents in many different ways.
Understanding Prejudice and Racism
Discussions of categorization and stereotyping (see Chapter 4) inevitably lead into a discussion of issues surrounding prejudice and discrimination. People have a tendency to surround themselves with others who provide social acceptance and help in time of need. As a result, they spend a considerable amount of time and energy learning the norms of the groups to which they wish to belong. One consequence of this is that individuals begin to think that the familiar behaviors of their group are good and natural and that those of others are less good and less natural. Recall that ethnocentrism refers to the tendency people have to make judgments based on their own standards and to apply those standards to others. When they make nonreflective judgments about others, these judgments are called prejudicial. The word prejudice implies a lack of thought or care in making a judgment (or attribution); prejudicial responses are quick, narrow in scope, and based, oftentimes, on negative emotions rather than accurate information. Prejudice appears to be a cultural universal; that is, people around the world tend to behave in similar ways toward certain other groups.
Although racial and ethnic prejudice can be expressed in both positive and negative ways, in the United States it has primarily negative connotations. Prejudice is often defined as a dislike based on a faulty and inflexible generalization that can be directed toward a group as a whole or toward an individual simply because she or he is a member of that group (Allport, 1979). The fact that prejudicial beliefs are rooted in inflexible generalizations means that educators may meet with great resistance to their efforts at change.
The Functions of Prejudice
It is easy to judge others’ prejudices (and even our own) rather harshly, but it is equally important to understand that if prejudice did not have a psychological function it would quickly disappear. Just as fear encourages people to prepare for danger and pain makes people aware of some problem, prejudice also serves an adaptive purpose. We defined the concept of categorization in Chapter 3 as the cognitive process through which people simplify their world by putting similar stimuli into the same group. In our evolutionary past, this process served us well and aided our survival. Rather than having to determine if each bear or lion we encountered was dangerous, we generalized and quickly classified all of them as dangerous. We constantly categorize aspects of our environment—it happens automatically and simply helps us to function in a complex world. Categorization in this sense served as a survival mechanism—we did not have to question each time we encountered a lion or bear to consider that it might not be hungry. We simply considered them all a potential hazard, avoided them as much as possible, and remained safe. The problem arises when we use the same process to develop negative ideas about groups of people and then act with that knowledge. Among the early researchers studying prejudice, Katz (1960) suggested that prejudice serves at least four functions: an adjustment function, an ego-defensive function, a value-expressive function, and a knowledge function.
djustment Function
People need to adjust to the complex world in which they live, and if holding certain prejudicial attitudes aids that adjustment, they will be maintained. For instance, a teacher who believes that members of certain ethnic groups or people with disabilities are incapable of achieving at a high level then has an excuse for not finding alternative methods of reaching them. This attitude reduces the work-related responsibilities of the teacher, thus making one’s life a bit easier. However, it obviously prevents those students from achieving their full potential.
Ego-Defensive Function
People may hold certain prejudicial attitudes to protect their own self-concept. If less successful students want to think of themselves as on equal terms with higher achieving students, they may be inclined to view the comparison group as cheaters. Holding this attitude protects the self-image of these individuals without any painful self-examination of the reasons for their own lack of success. The ego-defensive function also protects a positive view of one’s ingroup. Rejection of others then becomes a way of legitimizing one’s own viewpoint as well as a way of avoiding the possibility that others may have an equally legitimate point of view. This is similar to the level of Defense on the developmental model of intercultural sensitivity (Bennett, 1993) discussed in Chapter 5.
Value-Expressive Function
People use prejudicial attitudes to demonstrate their own self-image to others. If individuals believe they are custodians of the truth about the role of education, for instance, or that the god of their religion is the one true god, then other groups must be incorrect or inferior in their thinking. If one’s group has attained success through the use of highly valued technology, then those who do not have this technology must be backward. The value-expressive function presents a certain image to the world whereas the ego-defensive function protects that image by blaming others when things go wrong.
Knowledge Function
Some prejudicial attitudes make the stereotypical knowledge of one’s ingroup the basis of one’s personal judgments and actions. Our interactions with others, for instance, may be directly dependent upon the internal images and messages we carry in our minds. Thus, if a teacher believes that a certain group of people are inferior or have inherent deficiencies, that teacher’s interaction with students will reflect his or her beliefs. Holding these attitudes allows individuals to make quick (usually negative) decisions when faced with choices involving individuals from the outgroup. There is often a close relationship between the knowledge and adjustment functions. The former has to do with the information that one’s ingroup believes is important; the latter has to do with how people use that information in making decisions.
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Such behaviors may have a profound impact on the relationships and interactions children have with their teachers, significantly impacting educational achievement. Interviews of Maori children in New Zealand, for instance, report time and again that negative, deficient beliefs and behaviors on the part of teachers were central to developing negative relations and avoidance behavior of students (Bishop & Berryman, 2006).
Prejudice Formation: The Components of Prejudice
Three components of prejudice can be identified: cognitive, affective, and behavioral. The cognitive component refers to the need people have to simplify the world around them, considered as the process of categorization discussed above as well as in Chapters 3 and 4. Recall that stereotypes are merely categories of people, and narrowly constructed categories may result in negative stereotypes. The affective component refers to the feelings that accompany a person’s thoughts about members of a particular group. The affect attached to any concept can, of course, be positive or negative. This is the component most often thought of when one thinks of prejudice. The behavioral component is the discriminatory behavior that people who harbor negative prejudices are capable of directing toward others, especially when that person possesses both prejudice and power.
Educators can work with each of these components in different ways. In Chapters 3 and 4, we learned that the categorization process is a cultural universal that helps all people simplify and thus make sense of the multitude of stimuli they confront each day. As educators, we must recognize this fact, make a point of informing others about it, and work to broaden our students’ (and our own) categories. One long-term goal of both intercultural and global education is for individuals to become broader, more complex thinkers. That is, as educators we should strive to help people develop the ability to perceive and evaluate situations from a number of perspectives, not just their comfortable, possibly native orientation. In addition to this cognitive dimension, the affective and behavioral components are also under the control of educators. Strategies and programs that have successfully reduced negative affect and behavior toward others will be discussed in the following sections.
How Children Learn Prejudice
We have known since the 1940s that all children as young as age 3 or 4 are aware of their own racial or ethnic background and tend to have prowhite/antiblack bias (Augoustinos & Rosewarne, 2001; Clark & Clark, 1947; Katz, 1983). It is in the early childhood and elementary school years that children’s attitudes toward members of other groups (including racial, ethnic, gender, disability, age, etc.) are being formed and crystallized. Thus, a critical role of schooling should be to provide positive experiences that cause children to rethink their beliefs about group differences because on their own they are unlikely to do so. The literature on prejudice formation identifies a number of ways in which children may learn to be prejudiced: observation, group membership, the media, and religious fundamentalism (Byrnes, 1988; Hofheimer-Bettman & Friedman, 2004; ADL, 2013).
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Observation and Passive Learning
Children learn negative prejudice by observing the behavior of others, particularly respected elders. If those who surround a child display racist, sexist, homophobic, anti-Semitic, or other negative attitudes, children may be inclined to follow suit. Although children often learn much unconsciously from the subtle messages given by others, some learn prejudice from more blatant efforts by parents and community. This learning typically occurs unconsciously and early in one’s life, thus making the unlearning of such beliefs a tremendous challenge.
In a similar manner, school also plays a powerful role in the lives of children. Aspects of school culture can inadvertently promote and reinforce negative racial prejudice by having relatively homogeneous administrators, staff, and student body; a curriculum that emphasizes the perspectives and experiences of the dominant culture; and a learning environment that emphasizes only one value system.
Group Membership
Children, like other individuals, want to feel that they belong to a group. If the group that the child identifies with excludes or devalues certain others, the child is likely to adopt that behavior and those attitudes. Thus children may learn prejudice simply as a survival technique, as a way to fit into a group. Some children, for instance, are actively prepared from a very early age for adult roles in various religious cults or in secular organizations like the Ku Klux Klan.
The Media
Exposure to media is another way in which children learn prejudice. Although the media may not actively teach prejudice, it sometimes reinforces stereotypes or in some cases introduces stereotypes where they may not already exist. Portraying minority group members in stereotypic or negative roles, or being invisible, especially in positions of leadership and authority, are examples of how media influence children’s thinking. Cowboy and Indian films, for instance, have had a significant impact on children’s views of Native Americans (Cortes, 2000). Both electronic and print media, through children’s stories, often equate beauty with goodness and ugliness with evil. The symbolic association of evil with physical disabilities such as hunchbacks, peg legs, eye patches, and hooked arms has been shown to encourage a negative attitude toward disabilities (Bicklin & Bailey, 1981).
Religious Fundamentalism
The more orthodox or fundamental a person’s religious beliefs are, the greater the prejudice toward other religious and cultural groups is likely to be. People’s strict adherence to certain religious practices may actively encourage them to believe that all other doctrines, as well as the individuals who believe in them, are at best “wrong” and at worst dangerous.
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Extreme Cases of Prejudice
Racism
The concept of race and the practice of racism have always been intertwined in the United States. The term racism, as discussed in Chapter 3, refers to the transformation of negative race or ethnic prejudice through the use of power that is then directed toward individuals or groups thought of as inferior. Although overt racism, as displayed by John Gray in the case study, seems to have declined over the years, a rise in anti-Semitic, anti-Black and anti-Muslim incidents across the United States occurred in the aftermath of the 2016 election and have continued to increase in subsequent years. It is important to understand that both individuals and institutions can display racism. Individual racism is evident when a person who harbors negative prejudice discriminates against another individual. Institutional racism reflects intentional or unintentional institutional policies that unfairly restrict the opportunities of specific groups. Policies or practices that make it difficult for certain groups to participate in certain activities, for example, by charging fees for services that are out of the range of some groups, are examples of institutional racism.
Hate Groups
The term hate group refers to any organized body that denigrates select groups of people based on their ethnicity, race, religion, nationality, gender, gender identity, or sexual orientation or that advocates the use of violence against such groups or their members for purposes of scapegoating. The term, as used in the United States, is generally applied to white supremacist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, the White Aryan Resistance, and the Church of Jesus Christ Christians/Aryan Nations. Local chapters of hate groups tend to target racial or ethnic minorities in their immediate area, but all of the groups are anti-Black and anti-Semitic.
It is difficult to obtain accurate figures on the number of hate groups or individual membership in such groups, but estimates suggest that more than 900 groups, representing some 20,000 to 200,000 members, now exist in the United States. Some of these hate groups limit their activities to producing and distributing literature or actively recruiting new members, actions that would be most visible in schools; others are known to commit extreme acts of violence. The number of hate groups in the United States continues to increase, thought to be in response to the anticipated surge in immigrants and minority groups in the country and the projection that White Americans will be in the minority in the coming decades. In just two years, from 2017 to 2019, the United States saw a 55% increase in the number of white nationalist hate groups and a 43% increase in anti-LGBTQ, as well as continued increases in hate crimes and extremist attacks on synagogues, mosques, and in various minority communities (Southern Poverty Law Center, 2020). A similar surge in extremist activity and violent attacks has been witnessed in various European nations and New Zealand as well.
White Privilege
People can in many ways unknowingly contribute to the existence of prejudice. A particular situation, referred to as white privilege, exists when white people, who may have been taught that racism is something that puts others at a disadvantage, are not taught to see the corresponding advantage that their color brings to them.
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Peggy McIntosh (1992) referred to white privilege as “an invisible package of unlearned assets that I can count on cashing in each day, but about which I was meant to remain oblivious. White privilege is like an invisible weightless knapsack of special provisions, maps, passports, codebooks, visas, clothes, tools, and blank checks” (p. 33).
White privilege, like its counterpart male privilege, remains largely unconscious for most perpetrators and may lead to white racism (Sleeter, 1994). This may be due to a number of factors such as that whites have traditionally been in the majority, have accumulated greater power and wealth on the backs of others, and control much of the nation’s resources and media, making it possible to insulate themselves from the plight and rage of others. As Sleeter (1994) contends, this is perpetuated by having tacit agreement among whites to continue to reap the benefits of the past, and not to talk about it except in ways that continue to present current race relations as legitimate. In addition, at the individual level, people generally do not recognize their own behavior and how it may oppress others. Rather, people typically attribute success and status to personal traits (e.g., I work hard or I am smart) rather than to situational factors (such as institutional racism or socioeconomic capability; recall the fundamental attribution error discussed in Chapter 4), believing that they have “earned” or otherwise are worthy of what they have acquired.
McIntosh identified numerous instances where whites in general are at an advantage over people of color. For instance, most whites can arrange to be in the company of people of their own race most of the time, can find a home in an area they can afford and in which they would want to live, can go shopping alone most of the time without being followed or harassed, will find examples of their own race as the foundation of the school curriculum, and will not be asked to represent their entire race whenever the issue of race or ethnicity is broached. The recent incidence of Covid-19 that affected lower socioeconomic and racial minority groups to a far greater extent than their white counterparts may also be a result of such privilege. In what ways can you see that you or others around you may have been privileged?
Racial Profiling
Although there is no single, universally accepted definition of racial profiling, it generally refers to the law enforcement practice of targeting someone for investigation while passing through some public space (public highways, airports, etc.) where the reason for the stop is a statistical profile of the detainee’s race, ethnicity, or national origin (especially prevalent in times of national crises and war). In such instances, race may be used to determine which drivers to stop for minor traffic violations (sometimes referred to as “driving while Black”), which motorists or pedestrians to search for contraband, and more recently, which travelers to single out for more extensive security clearance before boarding an airplane.
Racial profiling has increased in frequency in the United States in recent years, both for traditional domestic groups, such as African Americans, and among more recent immigrants, such as Arab Americans. Despite the civil rights victories of 40 years ago, official racial prejudice is still reflected throughout law enforcement practices as well as the criminal justice system. Although some observers claim that racial profiling doesn’t exist, there is an abundance of stories and statistics that document the practice. Soon after the 2016 presidential election, President Trump issued an executive order initially banning travel to the United States from seven predominantly Muslim countries–viewed by some as a clear example of racial profiling.
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Strategies for Prejudice Reduction
It is in schools, perhaps more than in any other social setting, where people have intimate and regular interactions with a wide diversity of people. But we cannot simply assume that just because people are in close proximity to those different from themselves that positive outcomes and cross-group friendships necessarily develop. Close analysis of many school desegregation studies has demonstrated some rather surprising and counterintuitive effects. For one, greater diversity does not necessarily lead to an increase in cross-racial friendships, either in the short term or the long term. The opposite, in fact, can be the case. Moody (2001), for instance, found that the more diverse the school, the greater the tendency of students to self-segregate into ingroups based on race and ethnicity.
Some of this may be attributed to a U.S. emphasis on individuality as opposed to a collective orientation (Bronson & Merryman, 2009). Americans, in general, define their ingroup preferences according to their individual likes and dislikes. Thus, individuals may learn to see differences, and then, as a result, form subgroups based on their individual likes and similarity to others (e.g., they join organized sport and recreation groups with others like themselves). Although singular, individual identity is a long-term goal for many U.S. citizens, it is ultimately achieved by joining many distinct subgroups—especially in the high school years. On the contrary, in a highly collectivist culture like Japan, which values and seeks social harmony over individualism, young people are discouraged from seeking individual preferences. In a rather ironic way, it seems that the more the culture emphasizes individuality, the greater the tendency for young people to form subgroups in school as young people search to find their own identity.
It is thus essential that educators at all levels take the opportunity to become proactive in understanding and improving intergroup relations. This should take place on two levels—through teacher (and parent) talk as well as through formal curriculum efforts.
Parent and Teacher Talk
In their book, Nurture Shock: New Thinking about Children, Bronson and Merryman (2009) pointed out some other surprising research that challenges the assumptions many parents and educators have made about behavior and its impact on racial attitudes of young people. Many parents and teachers, for instance, assume that children will only see and be interested in race when it is pointed out to them, and thus go to great lengths to ignore the concept. A number of studies report a high percentage of parents who are uncomfortable talking about the topic of race in any meaningful manner. A 2007 study of 17,000 families with children in kindergarten (Brown et al., 2007), for instance, reported that 75% of European American parents and 45% of African American parents never, or almost never, discussed issues of race with their children. But racial differences, as gender, are evident to children. If the topic is not discussed openly and intelligently, children will be left to their own devices to make meaning, or vulnerable to the influence of others (e.g., peers, the media), which may result in misinformation, or worse, racist notions. As discussed above, U.S. children and young people rather spontaneously develop ingroup preferences, often based on similarity of appearance such as skin color (Bigler, 1999). This preference then extends to a belief that those who look like me are similar in other aspects as well—and the things I do not like belong to those who look dissimilar.
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Teachers and parents may assume they are creating a color-blind environment for children when they avoid discussing issues of difference related to race (or other categories for that matter). Recall the concept of Minimization discussed in Chapter 5. People find this a comfortable place to be, saying such things as, “I don’t see differences, I just see children,” or, “I treat everyone alike.” It is, thus, essential that parents and teachers not only develop a knowledge base about issues related to race and racism, but a comfort level as well so they can lead or enter such conversations on a regular basis with ease.
Curriculum Transformation
Critical to reducing prejudice and establishing an interculturally sensitive classroom is the teacher’s understanding of, and ability to integrate, intercultural awareness and prejudice reduction activities into the curriculum. We are fortunate that the educational research literature supports our efforts to reduce prejudice. Indeed, there is some indication that if we are proactive and mindful, we may even be able to decrease the likelihood that prejudiced attitudes will develop (Byrnes, 1988). And learning about others with a subsequent reduction in prejudice can be bidirectional; that is, not only can parents have a tremendous influence on the racial attitudes of their children, but the reverse has also been shown. A recent study out of Sweden demonstrated that adolescents’ attitudes toward immigrants had a significant positive impact on the parents’ attitudes (and vice versa). That is, measures of adolescent’s prejudice and tolerance predicted change in their parents’ prejudice and tolerance over time, challenging previous thinking that parents’ impact on their children’s prejudice was a unidirectional relationship (Miklokowska, 2016).
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Educational strategies that have demonstrated the ability to reduce prejudice generally fall into four categories: (1) improving social contact and intergroup relations; (2) increasing cognitive sophistication; (3) improving self-esteem; and (4) increasing empathy and understanding of other groups. These categories have curricular implications, which are discussed in the following sections.
1. Improving Social Contact and Intergroup Relations
Research by organizational psychologists, sociologists, economists, and others repeatedly demonstrate that groups that are diverse in terms of race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation are more innovative than homogeneous groups, and in surprising ways (Phillips, 2014). Collaborating with people from different backgrounds, it seems, not only provides exposure to new information and ideas, but when interacting with people who are different, group members tend to prepare better, anticipate alternative viewpoints, and expect that reaching consensus will take time and effort. From a programmatic standpoint, the most promising of all change efforts stems from the work of researchers interested in intergroup interaction. Allport (1954), in proposing the contact hypothesis, suggested that one way to reduce negative prejudice is to bring representatives of different groups into close contact with one another. Sometimes this method proves helpful, but not always; it is sometimes possible that negative prejudice is reinforced or, in fact, formed where it did not previously exist.
After considerable research it has been found that it is the conditions under which groups come together that are critical. Certain characteristics of the contact situation seem to be essential to ensure positive outcomes. Considerable efforts under many different circumstances (e.g., bilingual classrooms, integrated housing and schools, conflict management programs, summer camp programs) have led to recommendations concerning the best conditions under which social contact can be improved. These conditions relate to equal status contact, superordinate goals, encouragement, and personal familiarity.
Equal Status Contact
Amir (1969), working in integrated school settings in Israel, found that if individuals coming together have equal status, or equal access to any rewards available, conditions are set for improved relations. In Switzerland, for instance, French, German, and Italian are recognized as official languages of the country, with documents made available in all three languages. Speakers of diverse languages, therefore, are valued, well informed, and provided with the tools that enable them to participate in the society at large. This seems to be completely the opposite of the current movement under way in many states in the United States to make English the official language, even though this country boasts the fifth largest Spanish-speaking population in the world. Currrently 32 states have made English the official language. Although English-only laws are largely symbolic and nonenforceable, they have been interpreted by some to mean that English is the required language for day-to-day life. In one example, when the law was passed in Colorado, a school bus driver reportedly prohibited students from using Spanish on their way to school (Zentella, 1997). And in Kansas City, a student was suspended for speaking Spanish in the hallways (Reid, 2005).
In the school context, equal access to rewards can be understood to mean equal access to knowledge, grades, or extracurricular offerings. For all students to have equal access to knowledge and grades, culturally relevant and responsive teaching through appropriate curricula and instructional strategies must be employed (Gay, 2000; Ladson-Billings, 1995). Culturally relevant or responsive teaching reflects a wide range of practices that places culture at the core of teaching and learning. This involves many of the elements explored throughout this book, including such things as acknowledging the cultural heritage of various ethnic groups; building bridges between home, community, and school; employing a range of instructional strategies that are responsive to varying student learning styles; and integrating diverse content and resources into all subject areas.
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Enabling all students to gain all the benefits schools have to offer includes encouraging their participation in extracurricular offerings, which may not occur in the “natural” course of events. Social class status, for instance, has a significant impact on the kinds of school experiences in which a child may participate. Children from lower socioeconomic groups, for instance, tend to participate in fewer after-school activities than do their middle-class counterparts, and thus may not reap the potential benefits of such participation. For example, the development of skills related to group and team thinking and acting that have been shown to be associated with successful managerial or other higher-level employment are often learned through extracurricular activities rather than in formal classrooms (Brislin, 1993). Likewise, developing the ability to engage in a wide array of interpersonal interactions is greatly enhanced through participation in the nonformal side of the curriculum. Legislation regarding equal rights for disabled persons is also intended to bring equal access to children with disabilities, as is Title IX of the Education Amendment that is designed to eliminate discrimination based on gender.
Superordinate Goals
Achieving equal status contact in and of itself, however, is not sufficient. Individuals who come together and work toward achieving some superordinate goal or common task that could not be satisfied without the participation of all involved are more likely to learn to get along. This concept stems from the work of Sherif (1958), who found that although it was relatively easy to create hostility and aggression between two groups of boys at summer camp, it was far more difficult to bring them back together again as one larger, cooperative group. He was finally able to bring both groups back together by staging an incident in which a bus got stuck in the mud while on the way to a camp outing. For the bus to continue on its way, and for the young people to continue on to their outing, they all had to work together to push the bus back onto the road. This superordinate goal, which could not have been achieved without everyone’s participation, required all the campers to work together for overall success.
In the school context, superordinate goals are readily available in the form of team sports, drama productions, and music performances and through cooperative learning activities that can be easily integrated in the classroom setting. When students with disabilities participate in the mainstream of school life (extracurricular as well as academic activities), such co-participation with nondisabled peers in pursuit of common goals is possible. Similarly, students who have opportunities to work with others across racial and ethnic boundaries in activities like sports, plays, and concerts tend to develop more positive attitudes toward one another. Educators who work in schools that are more homogenous will need to put more effort and imagination into planning activities that involve diverse groups. Such activities may teach students to “see” invisible differences, such as differences in learning style, differences in religious attitudes, or differences in knowledge and perceptions related to gender roles. Activities might also involve cooperative efforts with other communities and schools or efforts to encourage the implementation of international exchange student programs on a regular basis. Educators could encourage integrated activities between students with disabilities and wit out disabilities, across traditional age barriers, between high school and elementary school students, or between older people in the community and students of all ages.
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Encouragement of Intergroup Interaction
To be effective, efforts to reduce prejudice must be seen as important at all levels of the school—from the classroom to the lunchroom to central administration. Such efforts cannot be seen entirely as the whim or “cause” of an individual teacher or particular group. Teachers, school administrators, and as many other adults as possible must actively encourage and show support for such efforts. Do not interpret this caveat, however, to mean that an individual teacher cannot initiate such changes. Innumerable teachers acting independently or with a small group of colleagues have demonstrated that the initial efforts of a single individual can have broad effects, especially in curricular decisions. Although the school system controls much of a teacher’s ability to make significant and permanent change partly in the way it controls available resources, it by no means controls everything. Indeed, many, if not most, school systems today are eager and willing to support a teacher who is trying something new in the way of curricular revision. Careful documentation of the revision process and its results are needed to institutionalize the changes that are effective and to refine the teacher’s initial work.
Personal Familiarity
A high acquaintance potential must exist during intergroup contact situations, encouraging close contact between individuals in a given situation. In other words, people must have the opportunity to get to know the “other” person in ways that render the stereotypic image clearly inappropriate. It is very difficult, for instance, for a student to believe that all people on welfare are lazy when that student knows firsthand that Susan and her mother are both working as much as they are allowed to within the welfare rules and that if Susan’s mother took an available job that did not include health benefits, she would lose the health card she is using to treat Susan’s chronic asthma.
Informal activity, perhaps even structured into the day or on weekends, must occur. Students can be placed in different heterogeneous groups for a variety of purposes, or they can be encouraged (or required) to participate in mixed team sports—any situation that will enable them to get to know others on a personal basis.
Some Cautions in Applying the Contact Hypothesis
Although application of the contact hypothesis generally proves beneficial, applying it in the real world of school settings has always been problematic due to a variety of factors. Many schools, for example, are relatively monocultural and appear to be homogeneous, providing little opportunity for intergroup contact to occur. In such situations it might be best to stress the diversity that is evident within a group, such as socioeconomic, religious, or gender differences.
But even when cultural, ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic diversity is evident in the school, other factors often mediate against regular, meaningful intergroup interaction. Some inherent obstacles may make applying the contact hypothesis in schools especially difficult to achieve due to the rather artificial nature of the school when compared to society in general.
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Some schools continue to experience patterns of racial and ethnic segregation, often as a result of the neighborhoods they serve or by segregated housing patterns, which reduces the possibility of intergroup contact, certainly out of school. In many instances, integrated schools may end up resegregating themselves through the practice of ability or achievement tracking. Grouping students by academic ability has long been, and continues to be, practiced in many schools and may result in the unintended segregation of students by ethnicity or race (Stephan, 1999). Tracking, or segregation by group, may relegate a disproportionate number of low-income students and students of color to lower-tracked classes in which they receive inferior education, thus perpetuating the problem. Tracking can occur for a variety of reasons and in many different contexts, not only by achievement nor only in the classroom; tracking also may occur as a result of participation in extracurricular activities, on the playground, or in the lunchroom.
Another problem with the equal status concept is that it may not generalize beyond the immediate context in which an intervention occurs. That is, while intergroup relations may appear to improve among individuals who come into contact in the school setting, such attitude change may not transfer to other contexts. Equal status between two groups may not generalize to other outgroups or when status is not equal, as in a community context.
2. Increasing Cognitive Sophistication
Strategies designed to increase cognitive sophistication or complexity have been shown to have a positive impact on prejudice reduction (Hofheimer-Bettmann & Friedman, 2004). Cognitive complexity refers to the degree to which an individual differentiates or makes distinctions between discrete aspects of an event, and/or makes connections or relationships among these elements. Persons high in cognitive complexity are able to analyze or differentiate a situation into many constituent elements, and then explore connections and potential relationships among those elements. Complex people tend to be more open to new information and to form more accurate impressions of others than less complex persons. People of high complexity, for instance, are attracted to a broader variety of people, are more flexible in their thinking, use fewer stereotypes, tend to search for more information when faced with a decision, tend to be more creative, and are less influenced by the persuasive communication of others (Streufert & Swezey, 1986).
A considerable amount of research points to the fact that individuals who think in narrow terms are more likely to have a high degree of prejudice. Strategies that are designed to help individuals avoid stereotypes and overgeneralizations and become aware of the biases in their thinking and behavior do help them become less prejudiced (Gardiner, 1972; Boyd-MacMillan, 2016). This research suggests that we will see positive change in this dimension when we focus our teaching efforts on improving students’ critical thinking skills as thinking in a critical manner is antithetical to prejudicial thinking. Rather than reacting quickly because of an emotional response, students must search for and examine the reasons or motivations behind their thoughts and actions. People who think critically tend to question, analyze, and suspend judgment until all available information is collected and examined.
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Teachers should work hard to create the kind of classroom environment that encourages critical thought. In such classrooms, students feel respected and have a certain degree of trust. Students cannot function at higher levels of cognitive activity when their anxiety level is high. Feelings of safety and trust are thus a corollary of student risk taking. Recall the role that the culture-general themes of anxiety, belonging, and status play in people’s sense of emotional stability.
The classroom should also reflect, as Lipman (1980) stated, a “community of inquiry,” or as described later in this book, a “learning community.” Such an environment is characterized by questions of all kinds—those for which there are “right” answers and those that have more than one right answer. Indeed, some educators feel that to prepare students for the real world outside school, teachers’ questions must force students to consider all sides of the problem, some of which may, in fact, be conflicting.
A balance should be maintained between teacher talk and student talk. Students must believe that their ideas are important and that what they have to say is critical. It is through discussion with others and through the sharing of ideas and problems that critical thinking develops. Within the context of a safe, open classroom discussion, all students should be allowed to participate and to feel that their contributions are welcomed. This is behind the notion of “belonging” that was introduced as one of the 18 culture-general themes in Chapter 4. Students should be taught to think about their thinking and should be able to justify their reasoning with evidence. An emphasis should be on metacognition, or becoming aware of how one has come to a decision. Students who are aware of how they arrive at defensible positions are on their way to becoming independent, self-regulated learners.
To think critically also means to think broadly, to take all sides of a problem into account, and to weigh the resulting evidence. In short, to think critically is to avoid simplistic approaches. Too often, students are encouraged to “learn what is in the book,” which frequently means to avoid “thinking” altogether. Teachers who create an environment in which risk taking is encouraged, in which cooperation in problem solving is stressed, and in which mistakes are not perceived as sins or personal faults are more likely to engender achievement in students. In such classrooms, an emphasis on thinking skills is not seen as an addition to an already overcrowded school day. It does not require a special course or time of day. Rather, critical thinking is a goal that permeates each and every lesson and all teacher-student contact.
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3. Improving Self-Confidence and Self-Acceptance
Pettigrew (1981) established a clear inverse relationship between the degree of prejudice a person harbors and the individual’s sense of self-worth. That is, the more confident a person is in his or her own sense of identity and competence, the lower is that person’s degree of prejudice, and vice versa. Although the relationship is not necessarily cause and effect, there are strong indications that self-acceptance is critical to mental, physical, and emotional health. Children with high self-esteem tend to be open and respectful of other people and maintain their sense of self without having to denigrate others.
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Classroom activities designed to increase self-confidence also tend to bring about a decrease in levels of prejudice. Children can develop confidence in themselves when they are in educational environments in which they feel secure and accepted, in which their participation is valued, and in which they know the boundaries or limits. Involving children in lessons in which they can see themselves or their culture reflected in a variety of ways helps to create a solid sense of self as well as a classroom that is respectful and understanding of others. Creating such environments should be of prime concern to educators.
4. Increasing Empathy for and Understanding of Others
Although prejudice reduction is enhanced through social contact, cognitive sophistication, and an increase of self-esteem, long-term gains require educational activity that actively engages the emotions. Activities designed to help students see the world from another’s perspective and thus develop empathy, or an understanding of the thoughts and feelings of another, are effective in reducing prejudice and improving intergroup relations (Garcia, Powell, & Sanchez, 1990). Classroom dramatizations and skits, reading narratives from another’s perspective, and simulations are excellent tools for helping children become sensitive to others who act or look different.
Shaver and Curtis (1981), for example, offered a simulation to help children understand what it is like for those with speech difficulties. They suggested students put something in their mouths (such as a small clean rubber ball or dental cotton—something large enough that it won’t be swallowed) and then make a telephone call to a store and ask for information. Students can then discuss how it feels to be unable to communicate effectively.
The classic cross-cultural simulation Bafa Bafa, or the children’s version Rafa Rafa, provides an excellent way for students to gain an understanding of what it is like to move between cultural groups (Shirts, 1977). In this experience, individuals learn “proper” behavior associated with the creation of two distinct cultural groups. After some time, members of each group have the opportunity to interact with one another. They very quickly experience feelings of anxiety, rejection, apprehension, and confusion—those feelings often referred to collectively as culture shock. Most individuals who have made a significant transition from one country or culture to another encounter such feelings. This simulation allows students (and teachers or parents) to explore the feelings and experiences of immigrant, migrant, or refugee students; international exchange students; students in newly desegregated schools; newly mainstreamed children with disabilities; or just about anybody cast in the role of “new kid on the block.”
Students may also write stories or act out plays and dramatizations of situations that characterize acts of prejudice and discrimination. In this manner, students “step into the shoes” of another, thereby gaining an insider’s perspective of what it is like to be discriminated against.
Comprehensive Programs Designed to Improve Intergroup Relations
In addition to the efforts that individual classroom teachers and large-group activities can make (e.g., team sports, school plays), a number of educational programs have been developed that demonstrate a positive effect on students’ attitudes, values, and behaviors (Stephan & Vogt, 2004). Brief descriptions of some successful programs designed for K–12 children are presented next.
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Antibias Education for Young Children
In 1989, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) published Anti-Bias Curriculum: Tools for Empowering Young Children with an updated version released in 2020 (Derman-Sparks, Olsen Edwards and Goins). This approach aims to help children develop the knowledge and skills they will need to work together in diverse, inclusive schools and communities. The four interacting goals of culturally relevant antibias education for young children are: (1) nurturing every child’s construction of knowledge, confident self-identity, and group identity; (2) promoting each child’s comfortable, empathetic interaction with people from diverse backgrounds; (3) fostering each child’s critical thinking about bias; and (4) cultivating each child’s ability to stand up for her- or himself and for others in the face of bias (Derman-Sparks & Olsen Edwards, 2010). The antibias approach is under development and influencing practice currently in a number of countries.
Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning strategies refer to a set of approaches that modify standard academic topics in such a way that the materials are learned in small, oftentimes interethnic, cooperative learning groups. Applying the criteria discussed in the section titled “Improving Social Contact and Intergroup Relations,” students work with one another in cooperative groups in pursuit of the common goal of achieving the objectives of the lesson at hand. Eight different cooperative approaches have been studied, with a considerable amount of research demonstrating that when the conditions outlined by Allport (1954) are met in the classroom, in addition to higher achivement and increased retention of content, students are more likely to have more friends across racial and ethnic groups, experience higher self-esteem, and experience greater social support than they would when compared to students in the traditional classroom (Cooper & Slavin, 2004).
A World of Difference
The Anti-Defamation League’s A World of Difference program is one of the largest and best-established efforts developed for schools to address issues of prejudice and racism. Teachers receive training in the use of specially designed curriculum materials that not only sensitize students to the existence of prejudice, bigotry, and discrimination but help them develop the skills needed to respond effectively to others. The instructional approach through the program is highly interactive, with an emphasis on students’ everyday concerns related to issues of identity, the prevalence of bias, examining instances of exclusion in their own schools, and ways of developing more positive intergroup relations (Hofheimer-Bettman & Friedman, 2004). A World of Difference programs have grown over the years to include four distinct programs: A Classroom of Difference, offering antibias training in K-12 contexts for children, teachers, and administrators; A Campus of Difference, providing similar training on college campuses for young adults, faculty, and administrators; A Community of Difference, offering programs for social service workers, staff of community organizations, and civic leaders to develop skills designed to improve peoples’ ability to collaborate more effectively; A Workplace of Difference, designed to guide corporations, businesses, nonprofit organization and government and law-enforcement agencies to develop more inclusive and respectful environments and A World of Difference Institute International Programs designed to offer their various programs in countries around the world.
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Facing History and Ourselves
Started more than 40 years ago, Facing History and Ourselves has explored issues of prejudice, racism, and anti-Semitism by examining the unique circumstances surrounding Nazi Germany and the Holocaust and other examples of genocide. The work has grown to consider additional topics: Democracy and Civic Engagement, Race in U.S. History, Justice and Human Rights, Anti-Semitism and Religious Tolerance, Bullying and Ostracism, Global Migration, and Genocide and Mass Violence. The program emphasizes the development of critical thinking skills while concerning itself with the moral issues of justice, human rights, and concern for the welfare of others. Students develop skills in the use of inquiry, analysis, and interpretation while learning about hatred, stereotyping, scapegoating, ethnocentrism, power, and obedience (Tollefson, Barr, & Strom, 2004).
Critical Incidents
The Case Study introduced at the beginning of the chapter ended with John Gray leaving the auditorium and Professor Adams suggesting that students return to their classes for some discussion of what had just occurred. This chapter’s Critical Incidents extend the encounter and raises a series of questions for you to consider.
Critical Incident
Do You Know Anyone Else Like John Gray?
There was much discussion among the students as they went back to their classes. When Professor Adams’ group reconvened in the classroom, it took him a few minutes to calm them down.
“Was he for real?” David asked.
“How could he be? Someone would kill him on the street if he went around talking like that to everyone!” Susan replied.
Professor Adams jumped in. “How many of you know someone like John Gray?” he asked. The room quieted down. About six hands went up.
“So,” he continued, “it seems that some of you know someone pretty similar to Mr. Gray. Who might that person be?”
“My uncle Pete’s a lot like him,” Melissa offered from the back of the room. “Whenever we’re together at family gatherings he just rants and raves about ‘those people’ this and ‘those people’ that. He really seems to resent it when someone from another race appears to do well. He once moved out of a neighborhood that was becoming integrated. He gets so loud and forceful at times that we all just want to leave … but we can’t … he’s a close relative, you know. Boy, it really bothers me.”
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Susan chimed in from across the room. “My sister has changed quite a lot since she got married a few years ago. I don’t ever recall her being prejudiced at home. I’m not, and my parents don’t seem to be. But ever since she married George she’s become quite racist. I don’t understand it. She has a college education, but her husband doesn’t. She just seems to have adopted whatever he thinks. I’ve gotten into a few arguments with her, but not when her husband is around. I’m kind of afraid to speak up when he’s in the room.”
“What are you most afraid of, Sue?” asked Professor Adams.
“Well,” Susan continued, “he’s quite loud when he gets upset. I’ve seen him insult other people, and I’m just afraid I couldn’t take his tirade. And besides, I don’t want to upset my sister, so I just keep quiet. I don’t know if that’s the best thing to do.”
“Sometimes my father gets like John Gray,” Rebecca added. “I’ve fought with him a few times when I’ve heard him say some rather negative things about people, especially about some of my friends at school. He gets quite upset with me when I challenge him, but it really bothers me that he can be so close-minded—and insult my friends at the same time!”
Does John Gray remind you of anyone you know?
When you are with this person, or a person like him, what feelings does it generate in you?
What do you do when you have those feelings?
How do you interact with this individual? Is this an effective strategy to employ?
Reflections From John Gray
After the classroom discussions, the students gathered back in the auditorium. As they settled into their chairs, Professor Adams walked onto the stage, took the microphone, and reported that there had been some very lively discussions. Professor Adams went on to say that he had been able to convince Mr. Gray not to leave because he thought it would be good to have him join them as they talked about their experiences and their various discussions.
There was quite a bit of talking and movement among the students when Gray returned to the stage. He took the microphone from Professor Adams and sat on a stool on the right side of the stage.
“I’m glad Professor Adams talked me into staying,” Gray opened. “I understand you had quite lively discussions in your classrooms. That’s good, because it is only after we begin talking about some of these issues that we will ever be able to solve them. In this case you were breaking the silence, and I applaud you for that. I’d like to talk with you now about your reactions to me. I wonder if any of you have any questions for me now?”
There was nervous commotion throughout the room until one student stood up.
“Are you for real? How would you deal with a person like yourself?” he asked.
“That’s a very good question,” replied Gray. “Let me tell you a few things about me, and then we can look at a few things about you. Would that be all right with you? And, by the way, what differences do you notice about me now?”
“Well, for one thing,” a student replied, “You seem much more relaxed. You are not confronting us; you are sitting, and you seem to be listening to what we are saying.”
“How do you know I am listening?” asked Gray.
“Well, for one, you are responding to what I just said. You asked me a question and waited for my response.”
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“Yes, I will admit that sometimes I get to the point that I do not listen nor respond to the things you might say to me. But when I am doing that, I must tell you, I am not acting. I am not role-playing with you. What I am doing is what I call ‘role-taking,’ and let me define that. I did not memorize a script and come in here to play the role of a bigot. That’s what happens in role-playing. But I was role-taking here with you this morning. I was sharing with you many messages that I heard when I was growing up—perhaps some of the messages you, too, have heard while you were growing up and perhaps still hear today. Maybe some of you shared that in your group discussions. Now while I may have heard those messages when I was younger, I do not support them today. But I do hear them in my head every now and then. I have to stop and remind myself that those are old messages, often prejudices, and I do not believe them anymore. They are like tapes that suddenly turn on in my mind when I’m in certain situations. But now that I am aware of them and now that I have more sophisticated knowledge and experience today, I know how to turn them off. So, in role-taking I was sharing messages that I grew up hearing and I was playing them all back for you. Do you recall what was said to you at the beginning of the session? You were told that you would participate in a psychodrama that would illustrate racism and prejudice in action. How many of you heard that? While you were told up front what was to happen, most of you were still personally drawn into the experience.”
“I was also searching for your buttons with the hope that you would begin to feel what it might be like to be discriminated against for no other reason except being placed in a category based on some outward characteristic. That’s in part what a prejudice is—it’s making judgments about an individual based on some preconceived knowledge you may have about a group, even if that knowledge is incomplete or wrong. And, by the way, I apologize if I forgot ‘your group.’ Perhaps I neglected to talk about gays or the elderly or overweight people. All of us belong to a variety of groups that can be stereotyped and discriminated against. And that statement I made about research and women in leadership? That was not accurate, it was fake news. You have to be careful about how messages are presented. Sometimes they may sound quite authoritative, yet may not be truthful.”
“What I’d like to do now is give you some feedback on how I saw you dealing with me so that when you are in a similar situation you can better evaluate what it is you would like to do. Is that all right?”
Many students signaled that that would be useful information.
Reflect on the earlier interaction between John Gray and the students. What kinds of reactions and responses did the students have to John Gray?
What are some possible consequences when people respond in such situations with laughter or silence?
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John Gray Shares an Important Part of Himself
John Gray reflected upon the encounter in the auditorium and offered to give some feedback to the students.
“One thing I recall,” Gray continued, “was hearing quite a lot of laughter in the group. I remember in one group asking a man why he was laughing. He replied that he was laughing to prevent himself from coming up on stage and carrying me out the door—and that I better hope he kept on laughing. But consider the consequences of laughter in such a situation. Think of a young child, perhaps a brother or sister or niece or nephew. And think of when someone might laugh when they hear an ethnic joke or when they are watching a show on television like the Archie Bunker All in the Family show or Sacha Baron Cohen’s film, Borat. Is it possible that through the laughter we create stereotypes that may not have existed before? The child, seeing people laugh at ethnic jokes, may think, ‘I like to see people laugh. Telling that joke makes people laugh.’ Then he or she goes into the classroom and tells that ethnic joke and begins the whole process over again. So, it’s important to think about the consequences of laughter and the role we play.”
“So, what can people do in a situation like this?” Samantha asked.
“I think it’s important that we take a stand, tell others that we do not appreciate or support the telling of ethnic jokes, so others hear an alternative voice,” said Gray. “You may not be the most popular person at the moment, but I can guarantee you that someone in the group will appreciate your sensitivity and your efforts.”
“Now, related to this, let’s talk about silence. Many of you were silent this morning. You may not have agreed with everything I was saying, and some of you may have actually agreed with some things you heard, but very few of you made your feelings known. Oh, you may have nudged someone sitting next to you and said something like, ‘he can’t be real.’ But let me remind you that I am real. There are people all around you, people who, while they may not be as vocal as I was, believe and act in such a manner in their neighborhoods and homes.”
“But let’s think about the consequences of silence. I think about Hitler. He got into power because people around him were silent and didn’t challenge him. When you are silent, you are giving tacit approval of the messages you hear around you. So, my challenge to you is to break the silence. When you see an act that you know is wrong, or when you hear someone say something that you know is damaging, make yourself known. Even by simply standing up and stating something like, ‘You know that statement you just made, I disagree with you and think it is wrong.’ You will do wonders at drawing the attention away from the bigot and will make those around you know that there is at least an alternative point of view. Your simple comments can go quite far at making change.”
It was becoming obvious that the students had spent quite a bit of time talking about these difficult topics throughout the day. Gray sensed that it was time to bring the day to a close. The students had had quite an experience. Little did they know that they were about to be challenged once again.
“I know it’s been a long day for us all, and I believe we’ve learned quite a lot. And if you think about it, you did most of the teaching here today. I think I spent less than an hour with you earlier yet you have been engaged in this topic for most of the time.”
“There is another part of myself that I have a need to share with you,” he went on. “Sit back for a moment and think about me now. What images come to your mind? What judgments do you make about me now?” He paused a minute or two.
“Let me share something else with you. For over 20 years I have been using my physical appearance to illustrate the myth of race and the impact of color. Perhaps by sharing a little bit about myself I can make people stop to think about the judgments they make about others, as well as about the myth of race and the impact of color. You see, under the definition of race in this country, I would like you to know that I am Black, or African American, my parents are Black, both sets of my grandparents were Black, I am married to a woman who is Black, and I have five children of various shades.”
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There was silence and disbelief around the room. Students and teachers were looking back and forth at one another and at Gray, who still, by anyone’s determination, looked as European American as could be. Then he showed some slides on the screen. One was of his family, showing the range of colors that were represented. Then there was one of his parents—obviously Black, but light-skinned, with Gray, appearing white, among them.
For many of you, your heads will be spinning right now. But I want you to know that what you see may not always be what you get. I am for real, and my experiences are real. Many of you may be confused because none of the visual cues about my ethnic identity are evident. Your judgments are now in question. I ask you to question all the judgments that people are so quick to make. And perhaps in your next class you can further discuss issues related to color, race, and racism.
And with that, John Gray left the campus.
What do you think John Gray means when he asks the students to reflect upon the “myth of race and the impact of color”?
How does skin color influence people’s judgments or attributions?
Can you recall a time when you or someone you know made a judgment that was premature and the reality turned out to be different from what was expected? What were the consequences of the quick judgment?
What suggestions might you offer to others that will help them to avoid the temptation to make quick judgments or attributions?
Summary
Prejudice and racism have both been rampant in many forms throughout American society. In this chapter, we provided an overview of issues related to prejudice and racism, beginning with a historical perspective and then tracing some of the major developments in efforts designed to address its occurrence in society. We then explored the concept of prejudice, prejudice formation, and prejudice reduction, emphasizing that various actions taken by teachers, schools, and communities can go a long way toward reducing, and in some instances preventing, its occurrence.
Key Terms
empathy
genotype
hypodescent
phenotype
prejudice
white privilege
What Does It Feel Like to Be Excluded?
Purpose: To develop empathy by imagining what it might be like to be excluded or discriminated against, and to propose possible responses.
Instructions: Developing an understanding of the experience of others in a pluralistic society is critical if teachers and students are to develop a fuller knowledge of culture and its various forms. One way to develop such a skill is to listen to the voices of individuals who have felt excluded from the mainstream for one reason or another—perhaps due to overt racism; subtle, institutional racism; general ignorance; subtle pressure; or genuine dislike. Read the following quotes and try to identify one or two feelings associated with them. Then, consider what you as a teacher might say and do in response (adapted from an exercise developed by Beth Swadener).
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Low-income mother: “My son understands that we have no money the last week of each month, and yet he was pressured by his teacher to have a new workbook by the next class. When we could not afford it that week, he was made to sit out of class. The teacher said, “Everyone else remembered to get their book, why not you?”
As the mother, I feel
As a teacher, I might
Jewish parent: “Last year our daughter asked me, ‘Could we have a Christmas tree and just not use it?’”
As the parent, I feel
As a teacher, I might
Chinese parent: “My daughter asked me, ‘Can I have blonde hair? It’s better to be blonde.’”
As the parent, I feel
As a teacher, I might
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Native American parent: “The schools continue to miseducate my son. The images he has of native people are limited, and there is virtually no relevant Native American history taught in his school.”
As the parent, I feel
As a teacher, I might
Islamic parent: “My child’s school has many Christian-based activities and has never even recognized that some of the students are not Christian.”
As the parent, I feel
As a teacher, I might
Single parent: “I feel that all my son’s behavior at school is blamed on the fact that I’m a single parent, and that many judgments about our family are made based on no other evidence than our ‘single parent family’ status.”
As the parent, I feel
As a teacher, I might
Vietnamese parent: (translated from Vietnamese) “My children speak and read better English than I do. It is so hard when lots of letters and information come home from school in English. I also feel that my children are losing respect for their parents and the elders in this country.”
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As the parent, I feel
As a teacher, I might
Extend this activity by collecting some of your own quotes from statements by children, parents, and other community members that represent diverse groups and who have felt excluded. Record three of your own examples.
Classroom Activities
Review sample elementary textbooks from various content areas (social studies, science, etc.) and across grade levels. In what topic areas would you find it easiest to integrate concepts related to race, ethnicity, and prejudice? How might you do this in a third-grade classroom? A sixth-grade classroom? A high school science class?
It is very common in elementary schools to reserve part of each day or week to current events. Review a week’s worth of newspapers from your local area. Identify two to three news events or other items from the newspaper that would lend themselves to discussion of race and prejudice for children in grade 3 or 4, or grade 10 or 11. How might you integrate this into your classroom?
Recall the surprising finding that greater diversity in a school does not necessarily on its own lead to an increase in cross-racial friendships. What are some suggestions that you might offer a local high school that would increase the likelihood that more meaningful cross-racial relationships might develop among students?
It is important to help young people understand the power and pervasiveness of stereotypes, both of those they hold of others and how others may stereotype them. Propose a lesson you might develop for high school students that helps them explore how the stereotypes they hold may influence their actions in a negative way. How can you help them understand the stereotypes those outside of their own country may hold of them, and to explore their validity?
Reflective Questions
1. What are some ways in which teachers might continue to educate themselves about new methods related to prejudice reduction while simultaneously keeping up with student needs and school requirements, especially when time is such a problem?
2. What experiences have you had in educational institutions that were effective at developing positive intergroup relations? What aspects of the contact hypothesis were evident?
3. If a close friend or family member were to make a prejudiced comment or tell an ethnic joke, would you protest? Why or why not? What about if it was a stranger who said the same thing? What if it was about a group of which you were a member?
Chapter
7
The Classroom as a Global Community
Nationality and Region
Corbis/VCG/Getty Images
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Focus Questions
What is globalization, and what does it mean to be a globally connected society?
What does it mean to be a globally competent individual? How does this develop in people, and how can teachers facilitate this development?
What are some powerful concepts that underlie a global perspective? What are some practical strategies that can be used to prepare students to better understand and interact with others around the world so they might prevent or solve problems that are global in nature?
“The love of one’s country is a splendid thing. But why should love stop at the border?”
PABLO CASALS, Spanish Cellist, Wrote music for UN Anthem for world peace, 1963 Presidential Medal of Freedom; 1876–1973
“People of different religions and cultures live side by side in almost every part of the world, and most of us have overlapping identities which unite us with very different groups. We can love what we are, without hating what—and who—we are not. We can thrive in our own tradition, even as we learn from others, and come to respect their teachings.”
KOFI ANNAN, Former Secretary-General of the United Nations
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Case Study
A Global Classroom
Susan approached Professor Adams excitedly at the start of class one day.
“Do you remember when I told you that my brother Nate teaches middle grades in a nearby school? Can I share an international project with you that he initiated with a school in Tanzania?”
“I’m all ears,” he replied.
“All the kids in his class,” she said, “were actively engaged with students in a Maasai school in Tanzania writing what he’s calling ‘international partnership stories.’ It works like this; students in one country write the first half of a story; these stories are then sent to students in a partner school in another country where they finish the story, translate it into their local language, and then send them back as a completed story. He’s been doing this with a school in Tanzania. They now have quite a few partnership stories written by children in two countries and translated into two languages. Everyone, it seems, is really excited about these experiences—and what they can learn about from them.
“Sounds quite intriguing. Do you think he’d be willing to come here to share with us what he’s done?”
“I’ll bet he would—he’s really excited about this right now. I’ll see if he can get a substitute for half a day and come to our class next week.”
The following week Nate, Susan’s brother, came to class eager to share his project. After a welcome by Professor Adams and an informal introduction by Susan, Nate began.
“I’m really excited to be here to share what I’ve been doing—and why,” Nate began. “Last year, you may recall, started with multiple challenges in the world-at-large that, in many ways, found their way into the classroom. In that year alone, the conflict in Afghanistan was supposedly coming to an end while the civil war in Syria languished on and on; the debate surrounding immigration continued to escalate in communities all over the country as the refugee crisis accelerated in Europe, and conversations about a border wall between the United States and Mexico got more and more heated; questions about Russian involvement in the outcome of our presidential elections never seemed to end; Women’s marches, the Black Lives Matter movement and questions about police-community relations were frequently in the news; and nationwide Islamophobia, anti-Semitism and anti-immigrant attacks accelerated. All this was going on while many people throughout the community still struggled to find good-paying jobs long after the Great Recession; the coronavirus pandemic emerged across the globe; and the environment seemed to be wreaking havoc all around the world with warmer winters, oppressive heat waves, violent storms, and an increasing frequency of forest fires.”
“I felt a need to try and help my students see how many of these critical issues affecting others around the world were interconnected and also impacted them, and to consider how these issues would continue to do so in the future. I wanted to connect my students in firsthand ways with others in the world, but wasn’t sure, at first, how to go about doing this. I had taken some workshops in multicultural education, global education, and cooperative learning over the past few summers and was eager to try some of the strategies I’d learned. I also wanted to integrate various parts of the curriculum and saw many opportunities to link language arts, social studies, science, and the arts. I was even willing to try to integrate other areas of the curriculum while exploring how I might add a global perspective to the classroom. I thought that trying to develop an international perspective might provide my students with concepts and activities that would cut across the various ethnicities, nationalities, and experiences found in my class. I thought that an international approach could also help my students better understand the circumstances faced by many people in different parts of the world, how their own family’s past experiences might be similar, and how their own local community was interconnected with others. I think you’ve been exploring similar issues in your diversity class, from both a domestic and an international basis.”
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Bartosz Hadyniak/E+/Getty Images
“I began with a unit on immigration that I hoped would develop empathy in my students for newcomers to this country. I also hoped this sense of empathy would be applied to the relatives and ancestors of students with deep roots in the United States. I thought that an activity on immigration might also serve to bring the group together as they explored both the similarities and differences in their backgrounds. I asked my students to go home and interview family members about their own or their ancestors’ experiences coming to this country, asking them to inquire specifically about the following topics:
From what country did your ancestors come?
When did they leave their country of birth, and why?
What was their experience like when they first came to this country? Do people remember experiencing any hardships? Were any stereotypes and prejudice directed at them?
Where did they first arrive in this country and how did they come to live in this community?
Are there any traditions from the home country that are still practiced?”
Nate continued, “A week later, I had students come to the front of the room, locate their family’s place of origin on the world map, and share their stories. I gave each of them a piece of yarn, and as they located their country of origin, I asked them to attach it to the map at that country and extend the yarn to their home. I was surprised by the results of this exercise. The discussion that followed the presentations was really enlightening. It didn’t surprise me to see how many of the students stood up and talked about their family history with a sense of pride. For many of them, this was the first time anyone had asked them about their ancestry. It also seemed that this was the first time that the students had listened intently to one another’s stories.”
“There was a real sense of contribution for most of the students. They seemed especially interested in Guy’s and Hannah’s stories. Some of Guy’s ancestors had arrived in the country in the 1600s. He shared stories of people jumping ship off the New England coast and ending up in Vermont. Hannah shared stories of her grandparents’ escape from Hitler’s armies and how lucky most of her family had been to get out of Germany alive before the Holocaust had really taken hold. She did know, however, that some of her relatives had perished in the Holocaust.”
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“What surprised me, though, was the difficulty a few of the students had with the exercise. One student, I’ll call him Steve, avoided participating in the exercise by offering the excuse that he had left his notes at home. The next day, when urged again to participate, he stood in front of the class and mumbled something like, ‘I’m adopted, and I don’t know anything about my parents.’ There was complete silence. An awkward moment or two followed, until I told the class that my father was adopted too, and he didn’t know much about his background either. His adopted family helped him learn about their Polish background, and he grew up in that tradition. Perhaps there are some traditions that your adopted family follow that you can take for your own. I asked him about the background of his adopted family?”
“Steve relaxed a bit and then replied, ‘Well, I guess they’re all German. I mean, my grandparents speak a little German when they visit, and my parents make it a point to go to the Oktoberfest every year. My father really likes it when he has his German beer. They’re even talking about visiting Germany in the next couple of years and plan on taking me and my sister. I guess I’m really German, but I’m not sure what it means to be German. I feel very much American, if you know what I mean.’
Nate continued, “I then asked how many others felt more ‘American’ than their ethnic ancestry and almost all the students raised their hands. I then said something like, it is good that we all feel American, because we are, but I want you to think about what being American means.”
“I then led a discussion with the class as they all reflected on the experiences they and their families had encountered with regard to immigration in recent years. When all the presentations were finished, students were asked to identify generalizations in people’s experiences and to pose hypotheses to explain what they observed. One student noticed that most people seemed to come to the United States for better job opportunities, or for more money, as he put it, both in the past and today. Another suggested that some come for religious freedom. This created an opportunity to discuss religious freedom today, and especially what it might mean for many of the Muslims who had immigrated here over the years. And still another student, Grace, noticed that everyone, except for one of David’s relatives who was Native American, had come from somewhere else. When encouraged, she went on to suggest that almost everyone was an immigrant at least once in his or her past.”
“Then Mark, an African American child in the class, reminded everyone that his ancestors didn’t come to this country by choice and perhaps that explained many of the differences that exist between African Americans and many other groups. I took this opportunity to discuss with the class the differences between voluntary and involuntary, or forced, immigration.”
“I then began to probe into students’ feelings about the immigrants they read about in current events or may have heard their parents talk about. Most were familiar with stories of Haitian refugees, the situation in Cuba, and the constant debate about Mexicans crossing the border into the United States. A few were aware of immigrant and refugee groups from Southeast Asia, the fact that many refugees had left Iraq, Syria, and other nations in the Middle East in recent years in response to the conflict. I was really hoping that a discussion about the plight of today’s refugees and immigrant groups would enable students to identify with their situation and to compare it to that of their own ancestors. A few were able to make this leap, but most only nodded in half-hearted agreement. I guess I have to be content that perhaps I planted a few seeds for future discussion and activity, which I promised I would develop.”
“Anyway, I wanted to do something that would be impactful and personal for my students while at the same time build bridges with others living in other parts of the world. I had read about a particular project, a partnership story project that was designed to integrate language arts, social studies, and cooperative learning (Cushner, 1992). Through this story-writing project, students in one country decide on a topic or problem, develop the main characters as well as a setting, and write the first half of the story. This first half is then sent to children in another country who are asked to complete the story and translate it into their own language. When completed, the classrooms have an internationally developed story translated in two languages that can also be co-illustrated by the children. In addition to collaborating on the story, classrooms can exchange a variety of artifacts, photos, letters, and so forth.”
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“I thought about how and where I might connect my students. I recalled meeting another teacher at one of my workshops who had taught in a small school in a Maasai community in Tanzania. I reached out to him, and he connected me with the Orkeeswa School, a school started by an American teacher about 12 years ago that served the educational needs of a traditional Maasai community that did not have a secondary school for its young people. You can learn more about the school at their website at www.ieftz.org, if you’re interested.”
“I reached out to the school and asked if they would be willing to connect our schools through a collaborative writing project. I suggested that they have small groups of three to four students, each write the beginning of a story about some kind of social issue. Once they sent the first part to us, I would have my students finish their stories. One group wrote an adventure story involving a school of fish in a polluted lake. Another wrote a mystery about the poaching of Africa’s wildlife in a nearby game park. In a minute I’ll share one story that focused on the struggles some girls have to receive an education. This happened to be a popular topic as we’d recently read a lot about Malala and many of the challenges she and girls like her have to receive an education. And this was something I knew was behind much of the work at Orkeeswa school as many girls in that part of the world also face challenges of early marriage and a lack of encouragement or resources to attend school. But to be honest, I knew very little about Maasai culture myself, so this was a great opportunity to learn along with my students. And I had to do this in advance as I was sure that they would have lots of questions.”
“Let me share with you that story.”
Part One (written by students in Tanzania): Girls Want to go to School Too!
There once was a Maasai girl named Nema who lived in Tanzania, a country in East Africa. Nema was 12 years old and had finished 6 years of primary school. Although she wanted to continue in school her family would not allow it saying that they did not have the money to pay her school fees. Each morning, Nema had to walk about 4 kilometers to the river in order to fill two large buckets with water for her family. The buckets, which hold about eight liters of water, weigh about 10 kilograms each. It was hard work and seemed like a longer walk home. Once she got home, Nema had to help her mother clean around the house before going out with her to tend to the garden and sometimes help with the cows and goats. It was hard work. Each morning on her way back from the river she would see many boys going to school. Her brother, Baraka, who was a few years older than her, also went to school.
“I want to go to school, too,” Nema said to Baraka one day. “Tell me what secondary school is like, Baraka. I want to go and continue to learn like you are doing.”
“You know what mom says – father would never allow you to go to school as we don’t have enough money,” Baraka replied. “And besides, Dad wants you to get married so he can get more cows that he would get from your husband’s family.”
“But Baraka, I really want to go to school,” Nema asked. “Please, please tell me what it is like as I really want to go.”
“All you do is learn and learn. It’s not really fun, you know. You’re lucky you don’t have to go,” Baraka replied.
But Nema still wanted to go, and each day she would ask her mother to let her go. Each day, her mother would say “No. It’s not going to happen. Your father would never allow it. Besides, he’s already chosen your husband for you. He’s promised one of his good friends that you will be his third wife.”
Nema was heartbroken and didn’t know what to do. She pleaded with her mother that she would rather die than get married at such a young age.
A week later, Nema’s father came looking for her and her mother, saying that her future husband was on his way. Nema’s mother told the father that she wasn’t sure where Nema was but that she would try and find her. In the meantime, Baraka went to the father and tried to convince him that Nema was too young to be married, that the times were changing, and she should be allowed to go to school.
“Nonsense,” said the father. “It has always been our tradition that girls get married soon after they finish primary school. Besides, you know that it would be a waste of money for me to pay her school fees – she’d only end up getting married and moving into someone else’s family. It would not be a good investment.”
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“This is where the first half of the story ended,” Nate continued. “Before I let them complete the story I asked them to write down questions they had. And there were many, as you can imagine—everything from how far is a kilometer and how much is kilogram to questions about early marriage and why girls just couldn’t go to school. We did some of our own investigation and learned quite a lot. The students in Tanzania wrote back pretty quickly and answered our questions. For instance, we learned that while primary school, or what we call elementary school is free, secondary school is not, and that many families in Tanzania don’t have enough money to send their children to school. We learned that in the rural parts of Tanzania, fewer than 10% of girls have the chance to go to secondary school, and only 1–2% of them graduate. We also learned that some traditional families, and the Maasai fall into this category, do have multiple wives and many, many children. And yes, cows do represent wealth in Maasai society, so although quite different, it’s understandable that they might want cows as a dowry in exchange for their daughters in marriage. We also learned that they face many challenges today as they increasingly interact with modern society and their traditional way of life is being altered as a result of climate change.”
“The students in my class then finished the second half of the story.”
Part 2: (written by students in the United States). (Nate continued to read.)
Nema’s mother quickly went to find Nema and tell her that her father had arrived and wanted to take her to meet the man who would be her husband. Nema, in tears, pleaded with her mother, “Mother, I do not want to get married—I’d rather die. Don’t make me do this. PLEASE don’t take me back to father.”
“You know how your father feels, Nema. This has been our tradition since the beginning of time. I cannot deny your father’s wishes,” her mother replied.
“But mother,” Nema pleaded, “you know that girls are beginning to go to school and that things are changing. I don’t want to get married now and end my life. I want to do something better, perhaps become a teacher or a doctor and then help others in our community. If I go to school, perhaps I can do this.”
Her mother hesitated, looked at Nema, and she was moved to tears.
“Alright,” her mother said, pointing over her shoulder. “You run out into the field in this direction and hide in the bush for a while and I’ll tell your father that I could not find you. Try and run to town, find your grandmother, and I’ll come for you later. We’ll try to work something out.”
Nema did as her mother suggested. Her mother, in the meantime, went back to the father, telling him that Nema was nowhere to be found.
Shouting as loud as he could, the father yelled, “You go find her, and if you cannot, you don’t come back to this home.”
With that, Nema’s mother began to walk toward town. Baraka joined her, and they walked the 3 kilometers toward town hoping to find Nema at her Grandmother’s home. Baraka talked a lot about what he was learning in school, how the times were changing, and that more and more girls were, in fact, beginning to go to secondary school.
They reached town and went straight to the Grandma’s home where they found Nema. She told Nema that there was a school in town that she might be able to attend and that she, her mother and Baraka would be able to stay with her in her home until they could work something out with the children’s father. And Nema, ultimately, was able to attend secondary school.
“After we sent the stories back to Orkeeswa school,” Nate continued, “they translated them into Swahili. We now have a number of International Partner Stories in two languages that address some kind of global or social issue. And now, with some of the teachers there, I’m in the process of trying to see if we can have the students tell us what they’ve learned about the other culture as well as about their own culture based on how each wrote their stories. I think there’s quite a lot of great culture learning as well as international friendships that can be developed using this approach. I’m excited to do more.”
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Education in a Global Society
It is the purpose of schools to prepare students for life in the larger societies in which they live. In a democratic society this responsibility means preparing students not only to know about democracy in a civil society, but also to be able to put it into practice. In a globally interdependent world, this responsibility means preparing students for a future in which they will come into increasing contact with people different from themselves. It means a reality in which an increasing number of American firms have offices in overseas locations, an increasing number of international firms have offices within the United States, or people in many parts of the world are connected electronically while working for the same organization or on the same project. It means political boundaries that are constantly shifting and rapidly changing, thus creating opportunities and challenges not imagined in recent decades. Moreover, it is no longer necessary to leave one’s own community to come into regular contact with people from other nations or to be significantly influenced by the actions of others from far away.
A recent survey of U.S. citizens found that 70% agree that international issues affect their daily lives, more than 80% think it’s important to teach foreign policy in high school and 90% agree it is important to do so in college. Similarly, a majority think it is extremely or very important to teach geography in elementary, middle school, high school and college (Council on Foreign Relations, 2019). Compared to young people in other nations, however, American students typically spend less time studying global topics and score low in terms of knowledge of and interest in international affairs or geography (Lutkus, Weiss, Campbell, Mazzeo, & Lazer, 1999; Niemi & Junn, 1998; GSF, 2013; CFR, 2016). The Global Studies Foundation (2013) reports that the United States finished 11th out of 12 countries when comparing the international knowledge of students. They report that a significant number of 18–24 year olds cannot locate significant places on a world map, including the United States (11%), the Pacific Ocean (29%), China (37%), Russia (39%), India (56%), Japan (58%), U.K. (69%), and Saudi Arabia (76%), to say nothing of Iraq and Afghanistan (both 87%). Nor are they well versed in current events, with 43% unable to identify Mexico as the largest source of American immigrants today. Only 25% can identify India and China as countries with 1 billion people, while 30% estimate the U.S. population to be between 1 and 2 billion. Perhaps even more of a concern is that 17% do not know that the United States has nuclear weapons; roughly two of five Americans believe that world population growth does not affect them; that global climate change will be gradual so we can deal with it gradually; and that because the world is so big and complex the United States should solve problems like terrorism and the environment on its own. A similar study of geographic knowledge of U.S. students undertaken in 2014 showed that about three-quarters of eighth-grade students scored below the proficient level, indicating partial or less than partial mastery in geography (GAO, 2015). This should not come as a surprise. Analysis of teacher survey data in the same assessment showed that 50% of eighth-grade teachers reported spending only 3–5 hours per week of classroom instruction time on social studies—the vehicle through which geography is taught. Similarly, as of 2013, only 17 states required a geography course in middle school and 10 states required a geography course for students to graduate from high school (GAO, 2015).
In response to this, educators are beginning to seek out concepts, skills, and strategies that will help students understand what is happening in other parts of the world so they can function more effectively in a globally interdependent world. A central focus of this effort is to develop an understanding of globalization and to attain an education that is international and intercultural in scope.
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What Is Globalization?
Globalization, referring to an increase in the scope and magnitude of human contact with its subsequent escalation of interaction and interdependence, seems to be the defining, and sometimes controversial, concept of the 21st century. Yet, globalization is not a new phenomenon; it can be traced as back to the Silk Roads that linked Asia and European empires during Marco Polo’s expeditions and the expansion of the spice routes between the 7th and 15th centuries. Thomas Friedman (2006) suggests that globalization really took off when Columbus traversed the globe more than 500 years ago. As Friedman and others have pointed out, recent advances in communication and transportation technologies have resulted in a rapidly shrinking world, which has increased and sometimes forced contact among people from diverse cultures.
Some examples of globalization in economics include: multinational corporations that operate on a global scale, with satellite offices and branches in numerous locations; outsourcing that can add to the economic development of a struggling country, bringing much needed jobs, but at the same time resulting in a loss of jobs at home; establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) which supervises world trade; the European Union as an economic and political union of 28 countries that are located primarily in Europe; and the USMCA, the United States Mexico Canada Agreement, a trade bloc in North America that replaced NAFTA in 2018. Globalization in technology is evident in such ventures as: global news networks, like CNN or the BBC, which contribute to the spread of knowledge; military cooperation between countries, such as the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) or anti-terrorism agreements; and environmental cooperation designed to address problems that cross national boundaries. Globalization in the blending of cultures is evident in: Greek culture that spread across Africa, Europe, and Asia; the Silk Road that was a trade route between China and the Mediterranean Sea area, which facilitated the exchange of not only goods, but culture and knowledge; Christian missionaries from Europe, which allowed for the globalization of Christianity; colonization all over the world, which was a major cause of globalization; and food, where you can find people eating sushi in Brazil, Indian food throughout Europe, and even Chinese food once a week at McMurdo Station in Antarctica. Other examples of globalization include: the Olympics, which started in ancient Greece and continue today; the FIFA World Cup, which has more viewers than any other sporting event from around the world; the United Nations, which acts as an intergovernmental organization aiming to promote cooperation in many areas including human rights, peace, and economic development; and organizations such as the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movements, which respond quickly to disasters around the world.
Living in the “flat” world that Friedman depicted poses many challenges that transcend cultural, ethnic, and national boundaries. We increasingly find ourselves in a world characterized by an interconnectedness in our economic, environmental, political, and social systems that brings about increasingly complex intercultural interactions, conflicts, and change. The world comes closer together through global terrorism, diseases such as AIDS and worries about Zika, coronavirus, or Ebola pandemics, struggles for peace, drug trafficking, the threat of environmental decay, and the interdependence of our economic systems. The distinctions between what is local and what is global have been blurred, and many people find it difficult to comprehend the new scenario in which they find themselves. Life in the 21st century requires that those who are striving to work together in various endeavors around the globe develop understanding of and sensitivity to the views of others as well as a sense of connectedness that taps into common values and goals. In today’s world, global citizens must be able to communicate and collaborate with those whose attitudes, values, knowledge, and ways of doing things differ significantly from their own. Building bridges across cultural boundaries requires a high degree of flexibility, a tolerance for ambiguity, and an understanding of the role culture plays in shaping thinking and behavior. Because these traits are not necessarily innate and consequently need to be developed, education can and must play a key role in facilitating the bridge-building process. How can we begin to understand the phenomenon of globalization, and how does it affect teaching and learning? In an earlier book, Friedman (2000) provided one of the clearest descriptions of globalization and its impact on society, and we discuss this in the following section.
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Emily A. White
Characteristics of Globalization
Globalization replaced the Cold War in the late 1990s, and with it came many distinct changes in the way in which people around the world interact with one another and their immediate, as well as distant, environment. Friedman used the Lexus and the olive tree as symbols to differentiate the two extremes. He said,
the Lexus and the olive tree were actually pretty good symbols of this post–Cold War era: half the world seemed to be emerging from the Cold War intent on building a better Lexus, dedicated to modernizing, streamlining, and privatizing their economics in order to thrive in the system of globalization. And half of the world—sometimes half the same country, sometimes half the same person—was still caught up in the fight over who owns which olive tree (p. 5).
Although the Lexus characterizes everything that is modern, fast-paced, and dynamic, the olive tree represents everything that keeps people rooted to a particular location, idea, or way of life, with many seeing the conflict as between fundamental religions and traditional societies and the more progressive societies of Europe and European origin like the United States as the epitome.
Globalization is characterized by integration; the world has become an increasingly interwoven place, and a person’s opportunities are determined by the connections that person has with others. Another feature of globalization can be summarized in a single word—the Web. We have gone from a Cold War system built around division and walls with one of two superpowers in charge to a system built around integration and websites. During the Cold War we knew that at least two people or nations were in control of events. In the globalization system we reach for the Internet, which is a symbol that we are all increasingly connected and nobody is quite in charge—unlike the Cold War.
haracteristics of Globalization
Globalization replaced the Cold War in the late 1990s, and with it came many distinct changes in the way in which people around the world interact with one another and their immediate, as well as distant, environment. Friedman used the Lexus and the olive tree as symbols to differentiate the two extremes. He said,
the Lexus and the olive tree were actually pretty good symbols of this post–Cold War era: half the world seemed to be emerging from the Cold War intent on building a better Lexus, dedicated to modernizing, streamlining, and privatizing their economics in order to thrive in the system of globalization. And half of the world—sometimes half the same country, sometimes half the same person—was still caught up in the fight over who owns which olive tree (p. 5).
Although the Lexus characterizes everything that is modern, fast-paced, and dynamic, the olive tree represents everything that keeps people rooted to a particular location, idea, or way of life, with many seeing the conflict as between fundamental religions and traditional societies and the more progressive societies of Europe and European origin like the United States as the epitome.
Globalization is characterized by integration; the world has become an increasingly interwoven place, and a person’s opportunities are determined by the connections that person has with others. Another feature of globalization can be summarized in a single word—the Web. We have gone from a Cold War system built around division and walls with one of two superpowers in charge to a system built around integration and websites. During the Cold War we knew that at least two people or nations were in control of events. In the globalization system we reach for the Internet, which is a symbol that we are all increasingly connected and nobody is quite in charge—unlike the Cold War.
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Globalization is a dynamic, ongoing process. It is the inexorable integration of markets, nation-states, and technologies to a degree never witnessed before, with a powerful backlash from those brutalized or left behind by the new system. Globalization has its own dominant culture that tends to create a homogenizing set of circumstances. In previous eras this sort of cultural homogenization happened on a regional scale—the Romanization of Western Europe or the Islamification of Central Asia, North Africa, and the Middle East by Arabs. Today, globalization has tended to involve the spread, for better or for worse, of Americanization and commercialization— from Big Macs to iMacs to Mickey Mouse. While the Cold War was a world of friends and enemies, the globalization world tends to turn all friends and enemies into competitors.
The Cold War system of power was built around nation-states. Today, the globalization system is built around three balances that overlap and affect one another:
(1) The balance of power has, for at least the last 70 years, been in the hands of one nation, the United States, which as the sole and dominant superpower had, and still has tremendous influence over much of what happens in many nations around the world although China, Russia, and India are fast becoming increasingly important.
(2) There exists a balance between nation-states and global markets, made up of millions of investors around the world who Friedman referred to as the “electronic herd,” able to, with the click of a mouse or sending a Tweet, influence financial markets globally.
(3) There exists the sensitive balance between individuals and nation-states.
Because globalization has brought down many of the dividing walls and because it simultaneously wired the world into networks, the individual suddenly has more power to influence both markets and nation-states than at any time in world history— as was evident with the impact Russia had on the 2016 U.S. presidential election. As a result, in addition to superpowers and supermarkets, we now have super-empowered individuals, some of whom are quite angry and powerful. In more recent years, we have seen the actions of such people as Bradley Manning, accused of giving classified files to WikiLeaks; and Edward Snowden, who has admitted to releasing classified material about the government’s collection of cell phone and Internet data, as further examples of super-empowered individuals challenging the superpowers.
Teaching With a Global Purpose
How can educators begin to respond to such changes in the social order, begin to understand the current state of affairs, and still empower their students with the knowledge and skills to be more effective with their international counterparts? The fact is that Americans (and others) are increasingly engaged with other people, thus demanding greater intercultural sensitivity, understanding, and a recognition of the shared values and challenges as well as differences among populations. We must begin asking ourselves questions such as these:
When is the best time to begin addressing an international perspective?
How do we learn about one another in ways that span boundaries and enlarge our understandings?
How do we accomplish this learning in a way that respects the sacred while promoting the secular?
How do we interact with others in a socially responsible way so as not to exploit but to grasp the essence of other peoples and their important contributions to a clearly global society?
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The lack of barriers and walls that globalization brings presents its own set of new challenges. The concept of learning communities is discussed in other chapters, but those contexts are concerned mostly with integrating domestic diversity. This chapter discusses learning communities that are true global communities in which members are committed to thinking, growing, and inquiring with people who cross cultural as well as national boundaries. We are thus faced with new and significant challenges. For instance, how can we build the trust and intimacy that is essential to community with those who live in distant countries? Technology may be one tool that empowers us to reach further into the world, but we must be careful that we do not neglect the work that is needed to develop and maintain true interpersonal relationships and community. This issue is of grave concern because we may have a tendency to look to people in other countries as new customers or competitors and, thus, may interact with them at only a surface level. We may impose our own standards, for our own good, on other people and thereby neglect the impact our presence might have on them. We are then surprised when they resent our presence.
Education for a Global Perspective
A number of professional educational associations have addressed issues related to global and international education over the years. The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS, 2016) defines a global perspective as the development of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to live effectively in a world possessing limited natural resources and characterized by ethnic diversity, cultural pluralism, and increasing interdependence. Teaching toward a global perspective emphasizes the following ideas (NCSS, 2016):
The human experience is an increasingly global phenomenon in which people are constantly being influenced by transnational, cross-cultural, multicultural, and multiethnic interaction.
The goods we buy, the work we do, the cross-cultural links we have in our own communities and outside them, and increased worldwide communication capabilities all contribute to an imperative that responsible citizens understand global and international issues.
There is a wide variety of actors on the world stage, including states, multinational corporations, and numerous voluntary nongovernmental organizations, as well as individuals.
Humankind is highly interdependent with the state of the global environment.
Citizen participation is critical at both local and international levels.
Education for a global perspective helps individuals better comprehend their own condition in the community and world, and make more accurate and effective judgments about other people and about common issues. It emphasizes the study of nations, cultures, and civilizations, including our own pluralistic society, and focuses on understanding how these are interconnected, how they change, how one has influenced another, and what each individual’s roles and responsibilities are in such a world. An education with a global perspective provides the individual with a realistic, balanced perspective on world issues and an awareness of how enlightened self-interest includes concerns about people elsewhere in the world. The catchphrase “Think Globally, Act Locally” has served the field of social studies education well. Making global concerns concrete, immediate, and meaningful to students is difficult yet critical.
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How Do We Achieve the Cognitive Demands Required for a Global Mind-Set?
The process of international socialization lies at the intersection of cognitive, affective, and behavioral processes. It does not, however, come automatically with cognitive development or physical maturity. Rather, like many developmental processes, certain experiences at critical times seem essential to alter attitude and knowledge formation in this domain. Some characteristics of intellectual development, for instance, may prohibit an international perspective from emerging until an individual has reached a certain age or stage of development. Thus, critical periods may exist for the international socialization of young people, thus becoming bookmarks for educators (Cushner, 2008).
Educators make frequent reference to Piaget’s stage theory of development to ground their understanding and explanation of developmental opportunities of young learners. Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor period, from birth to 2 years of age; the preoperational period, from 2 to 7 years of age; the concrete operational period, from age 8 to 12; and the formal operational period, beginning at around age 12. The preoperational and concrete operational periods are of most interest with regard to the international socialization of young people.
Characteristic of the preoperational period is that children begin to internalize mental representations of the world around them. Until this ability is perfected, children do not seem capable of taking the perspective of another and are said to be egocentric, with the world being viewed as if the child was the center of the reality. A child at this stage is generally incapable of cooperative play (Bybee & Sund, 1982), providing evidence of this egocentricity. Rather, two children tend to play independently, with little or no concern for the actions of others.
We’ve used the term ethnocentrism to refer to how people tend to view and/or explain the world from their own cultural perspective or point of view. There is a gradual shift away from cognitive egocentrism as children progress to concrete operations in the middle childhood years. Children at the age of 7 or 8 are able to correctly identify the right and left hand of a person standing opposite them. This partial relativism becomes a more true relativism around age 10 or 11, when children can correctly identify that an object in the middle can be both on the right and on the left of something. Flavell, Botkin, and Fry (1968) applied this in their work on perceptual role-taking ability by demonstrating that children in this age period have an increased ability to communicate with others by comprehending the perspective of the listener. They thus begin to understand that others may have a viewpoint that is different from their own.
Related to this is a process Piaget termed perceptual or cognitive centration, referring to the tendency children have of being so overwhelmed by one aspect of a visual experience that they are unable to attend to other aspects of a situation. This helps explain why young children often are unable to acknowledge conflicting or contradictory points of view on social issues, often seeing things as black or white, right or wrong. As children progress from the preoperational stage to concrete operations, they begin the process of decentering, especially if provided guidance and practice, and can accommodate shades of gray and alternative points of view. Selman and Schultz (1990) reported that between 9 and 15 years of age children acquire the skill of third-person perspective taking.
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Children’s thought processes, too, shift from being static to dynamic. That is, the preoperational child is generally unable to conceive of change upon an object—what is perceived is assumed to have always been, and unlikely to change. As the child progresses to the next stage, the world is seen as more dynamic and changeable. In addition, as children become older, they become increasingly capable of demonstrating concern for the needs of others in the community at large. This may help explain the shift from a present, concrete orientation to a more future, abstract, and general orientation noted by Adelson and O’Neill (1966) in their study of the growth of political ideas in early adolescents.
In support of using developmental theory to explain international socialization, studies indicate that political understanding and learning are initiated at a relatively early age as children begin to interact with authority roles, make decisions, and deal with interpersonal and intergroup cooperation and conflict. The types of experience encountered affect subsequent attitudes regarding national and international identity and perception. Remy, Nathan, Becker, and Torney (1975) concluded that children in the intermediate grades (grades 4–8) have a sense of their national identity and are beginning to develop attitudes, values, and beliefs of their own nation and others as international beings and actors, as well as gaining knowledge about such issues as war and peace.
Although there are developmentally appropriate experiences young children should have that can set the stage for further growth, the middle childhood years (ages 8–12) may represent the critical period in the development of an international or intercultural perspective in children, especially considering the existence of attitude flexibility that is later followed by attitude rigidity. This age period seems to be characterized by rapid cognitive development, especially related to the area of perspective and role-taking ability, low rejection of groups, high attitude flexibility, development of more differentiated intergroup perceptions, and is a time when one is beginning to be able to perceive another’s point of view. For those of us concerned with the role of experience in the attainment of intercultural sensitivity, this represents an ideal time to begin traveling with young people and having them participate in significant intercultural experiences (see Cushner, 2018). Educational efforts to develop an international and intercultural perspective should, therefore, begin during these years.
Is Technology Facilitating a Global Mind-Set?
As pointed out in Chapter 5, results of numerous studies using the IDI show that the majority of teachers fall on the ethnocentric side of the Intercultural Continuum. Two studies looking at the intercultural sensitivity of young people showed some surprisingly unexpected results. Pederson (1998) used a modified version of the IDI with 145 12-year-old seventh graders, and found 35% in high Minimization and 35% in Acceptance. Among 336 high school students in an international school in Southeast Asia, Straffon (2003) found 71% to be in Acceptance and 26% in Adaptation, with only 3% on the ethnocentric side. Both of these studies showed that the greater the amount of exposure to difference (city versus suburban and rural schools in the Pedersen study and the amount of time in international schools in the Straffon study), the higher the level of intercultural sensitivity.
Herein lies the conundrum: the majority of teachers—those we make responsible for advancing the knowledge, skill, and attitude of young people—appear to be on the ethnocentric side of the continuum, while their students show evidence of being more sophisticated in terms of intercultural development. How might this be explained? It is possible that we do not have sufficient tools to assess intercultural sensitivity in young people. It is also conceivable that any intercultural sophistication people may acquire when they are young diminishes as they age and are socialized into adulthood. It’s also possible that something else is going on—perhaps even a confluence of powerful and fundamental changes in both society in general and within the field of education more specifically, all with intercultural overtones, which are converging at this time that may accelerate the rate and frequency at which young people are exposed to new experience, new people, and new ideas. This is especially important when viewed in terms of the developmental readiness of acquiring an intercultural perspective.
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The United States employed about 3.7 million teachers in 2016 (NCES, 2016), more than half of whom are above age 40. The experiences of children growing up, interacting, and learning about the world today, are significantly different from the experiences of most teachers. Although we have no data on the intercultural sensitivity of people in earlier generations, recall the conundrum: young people appear to be more culturally sensitive than those in older generations. A multitude of factors may be coming together suggesting that the seeds of change may be sown and that we may be on the verge of something we have not witnessed in the past. This confluence of factors includes:
an increase in the number of children attending school worldwide;
an increase in overall exposure of young people to cultural diversity through increased movement of people across national borders as tourists, immigrants, and refugees, and greater global media exposure;
a slow but nonetheless concerted effort in some schools to provide more culturally relevant content, including increased attention to second language learning;
greater understanding and attention to intercultural concepts as they relate to the instructional process itself; and
a growing desire on the part of young people to travel and study outside their home countries.
Perhaps the shift in intercultural competence is beginning to take place as a result of the increased integration and ubiquitous nature of digital technologies in schools around the world. Millennials, the most technologically savvy generational group so far, are more proficient with technology than most of their teachers and parents. In 2018, 95% of teens had smartphones with 45% saying they are online “almost constantly” (PEW Research Center, 2018). A similarly high percentage, 88%, has computer access at home. Technology is also much more pervasive, and Internet penetration rates are increasing worldwide—especially in Africa where in 2020 it reached 39% of the population; the Middle East where it now reaches 69% of the population; within Asia where it reaches 54% of the people; and in Latin America where it reaches 69% of people (Internet World Stats, 2020).
International linkages in education have existed at least since the 1920s when a number of global learning networks began in Europe and the United States. Such efforts made use of available technologies and modes of communication that enabled classrooms to exchange cultural artifacts such as letters, photos, and flowers from their local area with children in other parts of the world. Today’s technology makes it increasingly easy to bring children into more frequent and regular interaction with one another—and oftentimes in very meaningful ways. A number of engaging Internet-based school linkage initiatives exist and they will be reviewed at the end of this chapter. Suffice it to say for now that there is a flurry of activity and a world of opportunity that is just beginning to unfold for children around the world that may explain the intercultural conundrum presented earlier.
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Curriculum Transformation: The International Perspective
The foundation of a framework for integrating a global perspective across the curriculum was made practical by Robert Hanvey in his 1978 paper, “An Attainable Global Perspective.” In this work, Hanvey identified five elements of a global perspective that can be transformed into teachable skills and perspectives that cut across academic disciplines and grade levels. Each of these elements is examined in the discussion that follows.
Perspective Consciousness
Perspective consciousness refers to a person’s awareness that he or she has a view of the world that is not universally shared, that this view is shaped by unconscious as well as conscious influences, and that others may have profoundly different views. This dimension especially differentiates opinion from perspective. Opinion refers to the surface layer of a person’s thoughts. It is the tip of the iceberg, so to speak, showing only a small portion of its totality. Underneath the surface lie the generally hidden, unexamined assumptions and judgments people make about life, about others, and about right and wrong (think back to the iceberg analogy of culture in Chapter 3). The assumption that human dominance over nature is both attainable and desirable is an example of a perspective that lies deep in many Western minds. It was not until this traditionally unexamined assumption surfaced that many philosophical choices that previously had escaped our attention were raised. As a result, debate involving our relationship with the environment ensued and stimulated considerable thought, activity, and discussion. Today, some still struggle to understand our role in both the cause and correction of global warming. Similarly, the feminist movement raised the consciousness of women and men regarding the role of women in society. In the process, deep layers of chauvinism inherent in much of our thinking about male and female roles were revealed. Likewise, concerned parents, addressing the unmet needs of their exceptional children, pointed out how the educational system (and society in general) discriminated against a large segment of society, and as a result, were the cause behind many of the current practices related to exceptionality (see Chapter 12).
Children can develop perspective consciousness in a number of ways. Ethnocentrism suggests that most individuals have a tendency to overemphasize their own culture’s perspective, importance, and point of view. Children can be encouraged to question their own cultural perspectives and to consider how others might view them, and social studies curricula can help students examine their own culture’s behavior from another point of view. When studying people in other parts of the world, for instance, students can be asked to explore why most people prefer to live in their native habitats despite what may appear to be rather difficult conditions. Why, children in your classrooms might ask, would anyone want to live in the Arctic, where people have to contend with extremes in temperature and have to hunt for their food? Or why would the Munduruku people of the Amazon River in South America want to live where the temperature is extremely hot year-round; where there are poisonous animals and annoying insects to contend with; and where the food staple, the poisonous manioc, has to be boiled and pounded over hot fires in the sweltering heat just to make it eatable? Likewise, children growing up in those regions of the world might ask the same of our young students: how can anyone live in an environment where the air is polluted, where the water is trapped in pipes and treated with chemicals, and where food is not freshly hunted and prepared but is packaged and loaded with preservatives so its shelf life can be extended? It can be quite enlightening and engaging to help students see how strange their own behavior looks to others as others’ might appear to them.
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Children can also develop perspective consciousness by reading some of the numerous books that have been written either from another’s perspective or from an insider’s point of view. Children’s books such as The True Story of the Three Little Pigs as Told by A. Wolf (Scieszka, 1989) or, The Wolf’s Story: What Really Happened to Little Red Riding Hood (Forward, 2005), for instance, are good ways to help children see that other points of view exist around most topics. In addition, teachers can use common optical illusions to help children see how the same image can appear differently when viewed from alternate perspectives. Even young children can recognize that others may interpret events in quite different ways, making comments such as, “He says I’m not big enough to play.”
State of the Planet Awareness
The awareness of prevailing world conditions and trends includes such aspects as population growth and migration; economic conditions; resources and the physical environment; political developments; advancements in science and technology, law, and health; and various forms of conflicts. Most people, even from highly mobile societies like the United States, spend the majority of their time in their local area. However, developments in communication technology have brought the world, if not into most people’s homes, certainly within most people’s reach. Extensive global media coverage via television news is making its impact felt at the diplomatic and war tables as well.
The liberal weekly Die Zeit of Hamburg, Germany, relates two incidents that capture the extent of the impact made by the aggressive CNN news broadcasting team relatively early in its existence:
In the summer of 1989, when the U.S. government was searching for a response to threats that hostages in Lebanon would be killed, a White House advisor was asked where President George Bush was spending the day. “He is in his office, watching CNN,” the advisor said. “CNN is interviewing Middle East experts; maybe one of them will have an idea that the president can use.” And when the Americans marched into Panama in December, 1989, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev made use of the medium. CNN’s Moscow correspondent was called to the Kremlin in the middle of the night. There, a press aide read a condemnation of the invasion for the camera. The official note to the U.S. ambassador was not delivered until hours later. The Kremlin’s excuse was that it was counting on Washington getting the Kremlin’s reaction immediately via CNN (CNN, 1990, p. 34).
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Another illustration of the media’s educational role can be seen in its coverage of the first Gulf War in the winter of 1991. The U.S. military, knowing that Iraq was watching coverage of the war on CNN, actually planned their movements differently from those they were reporting to the American public so as to confuse the enemy. Thus, while the media makes state of the planet awareness a possibility as never before, it also makes the spread of misinformation easier and faster than ever before. Today, we might hear this referred to as “fake news.” A recent example of this experience was created during the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign when false news items and a number of conspiracy theories were generated by numerous sources which people believed and acted upon. Also, if we are not careful, we may find it very easy to believe that the real world consists only of televised images according to CNN or Fox News. Sometimes referred to as the CNN effect or more recently as the Twitter or social media effect, this refers to the notion that compelling images, such as those viewed during a humanitarian crisis, cause policymakers to intervene in situations where they might not otherwise be in the best interests of the nation. Schorr (1998) suggested that this is “the way breaking news affects foreign policy decisions.” Neuman (1996) described the CNN effect in the following way: “It suggests that when CNN floods the airwaves with news of a foreign crisis, policymakers have no choice but to redirect their attention to the crisis at hand. It also suggests that crisis coverage evokes an emotional outcry from the public to ‘do something’ about the latest incident, forcing political leaders to change course or risk unpopularity” (pp. 15–16). Or recall the story line in the successful film Wag the Dog, which portrays a media-produced war created to divert public attention from unethical presidential behavior.
Ariel Skelley/Blend Images LLC
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General public awareness of the state of the planet must become a priority. Children must be taught to reflect on national and world conditions and to ask questions that go beyond the obvious. For example, they should be aware that despite all of the United Nations’ accomplishments, conditions for most of the world’s people show serious deterioration (Childers & Urquhart, 1994; UNHCR, 2020). For instance:
The world’s population has grown more in the last 50 years than in the previous 4 million years and is the single biggest threat to our planet and its resources. World population is projected to increase from 7.8 billion in 2020 to a projected 11– 12 billion by the end of the century, meaning there will be 4 billion more mouths to feed. This number alone is equal to what the total world population was in 1975.
Four hundred million people are unemployed in the “south” (the preferred term for those countries once referred to as undeveloped or third world). Forty million new jobs are needed each year just to maintain the present world condition. Under present north-south imbalances, there is not the remotest chance that these jobs will materialize.
Over 1 billion people live in poverty today, 40% more than in 1980. In 1960, the wealthiest one fifth of the world’s population were 30 times richer than the poorest one fifth. Today, the wealthiest one fifth of the world’s population are 60 times richer than the poorest one fifth. Viewed from the perspective of a single country, such conditions represent the classic condition for a massive and violent revolution.
Through television, radio, film, and the Internet, poor countries of the south have acquired knowledge of the affluent lifestyles of the minority in the north and of some southern elites, permitting angry comparisons with the desperate poverty of the vast majority in the south.
In 1951, when the United Nations High Commission on Refugees (UNHCR) was founded, there were some 1.5 million legally classified refugees worldwide. Today, more than 70 million people around the world have been forced from their homes as a result of conflict or persecution—nearly 37,000 a day! Among them are nearly 26 million refugees, over half of whom are under the age of 18. There are also at least 4 million stateless people who have been denied a nationality and access to basic rights such as education, healthcare, employment, and freedom of movement, as well as an increasing number of climate refugees—people leaving their homelands due to the life-altering impact the climate change has had on their immediate environment.
World grain production per capita has shrunk by half since 1950. In Africa, grain production has dropped 28% since 1967 due to the effects of drought, desertification, erosion, and population growth. Every day, more than 16,000 children die from hunger-related causes. This is one child every 5 seconds.
The rate of environmental deterioration continues unabated despite the best intentions of the activists and policymakers. The problems posed by climate change, ecosystem destruction, and ozone depletion demand urgent attention. Currently, 1 in 5 people in the world survive on less water per day than is used to flush a toilet.
On a global basis, only $1.90 is spent, per person per year, on the United Nations. This figure compares to $150 spent per person worldwide on weapons.
Most people do not know that within the United States, nearly 57 million Americans or 19% of the population, were considered disabled or handicapped in 2010. Nor do most people know how many Americans go hungry or are homeless, or how many children are born addicted to cocaine or suffer from AIDS-related complications. Students must be actively encouraged to expand their knowledge base, to review international news sources, and to inquire into the knowledge and perspective of international visitors. Such actions, incidentally, would also help students develop the first dimension of global education, perspective consciousness.
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Understanding one’s place relative to others in a global society is critical. If the world population were reduced to 100 people while maintaining existing human ratios, there would be 60 Asians, 12 Europeans, 13 from North and South America, and 14 Africans; 49 would be female and 51 would be male; 82 would be nonwhite and 18 would be white; 67 would be non-Christian and 33 would be Christian; 89 would be heterosexual and 11 would be gay or lesbian; 32% of the entire world’s wealth would be in the hands of only 5 people and all 5 would be citizens of the United States; 80 would live in substandard housing; 67 would be unable to read; 50 would suffer from malnutrition; and only 1 would have a college education and 1 would own a computer (Family Care Foundation, 2008).
Cross-Cultural Awareness
The cross-cultural dimension of global education includes an awareness of the social and cultural diversity around the world and at least a beginning awareness of how one’s own culture and society might be viewed from other vantage points. Hanvey suggests that this dimension may be the most difficult to attain because people typically do not have the time or expertise needed to truly understand those who are different from themselves. We also know that understanding about others does not necessarily follow from simple contact. Lengthy, structured, and intimate contact under certain conditions is required to gain an insider’s understanding of those in another culture (see Chapter 6 for a more in-depth discussion of intergroup relations and the contact hypothesis).
How can schooling best develop cross-cultural awareness in young people? To define what schools might reasonably hope to accomplish in this direction, it may be helpful to recall the iceberg model of culture as you consider four levels of cross-cultural awareness posited by Hanvey.
The first level involves awareness of superficial or extremely visible cultural traits, the kind that often become the basis for stereotypes: skin color, dress, language patterns, ceremonies, and so on. Much of this information is obtained through textbooks, television, and tourism. At this level, the individual outside a given culture typically interprets observed actions of others as exotic, or worse, bizarre. This level is most like the denial and defense stages of the DMIS discussed in Chapter 5.
The second level involves awareness of significant but more subtle cultural traits that contrast markedly with one’s own. Such information is often gained as a result of culture conflict situations and is often interpreted as unbelievable. The reaction here, however, is more on an emotional level. Interactions are considered frustrating, irrational, and against “common sense,” similar to those encountered at the DMIS stage of defense.
The third level also includes an awareness of significant and subtle cultural traits that contrast markedly with one’s own. However, this level is characterized by more intellectual emphasis and analysis. Others’ behavior is better understood and seen as more like one’s own. This level might be likened to the minimization stage on the DMIS.
The fourth level involves awareness of how another culture feels from the perspective of an insider. People attain this perspective through cultural immersion: that is, from living the culture. Information is perceived as believable not simply because it is understood at the cognitive level but because of its familiarity at the subjective or affective level. This level might be likened to reaching the state called “home” on the U-curve or the DMIS stages of acceptance, adaptation, and integration.
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Effective culture learning is more of an affective and behavioral process than a cognitive process. A person truly learns about another culture by living it, not by being told about it. Development of intercultural competence may be, as Hanvey and others have noted, the most difficult, yet the most critical, of the five dimensions to achieve. However, strategies do exist that can assist people on their way to becoming interculturally competent. The culture-general framework introduced in Chapter 4, for instance, can have a significant impact on cognition, affect, and behavior in cross-cultural settings (Cushner & Brislin, 1996). It is a cognitive tool that engages the emotions and may be just the tool for the school context.
Knowledge of Global Dynamics or World Systems
Attaining this fourth dimension of a global perspective, knowledge of global dynamics or world systems, requires a modest understanding of how world ecosystems operate. Educators can stress the interconnectedness of things by asking students to consider the impact one particular decision or action will have on another. The following examples illustrate interconnectedness.
An interesting study out of Sweden shows a surprising interaction between the use of birth control pills and changes in fish populations (Science Daily, 2016). Fish have more estrogen receptors than humans, which make them especially vulnerable to estrogen in water. The hormone ethinyl-estradiol (EE2) is an active substance in many birth control pills. This substance, when excreted in urine and flushed down toilets, even in small amounts, ends up in wastewater subsequently impacting the genetic balance as well as behavior of fish. Some fish, for instance, have a harder time catching food as well as experience problems with procreation, potentially leading to the complete disappearance of entire fish populations. This is a good example of an unanticipated, unintended outcome. And, we are now learning that fish caught in many U.S. waters contain pharmaceutical residues, including medicines to treat high blood pressure, bipolar disorder, and depression—another unanticipated consequence!
Now consider an example of the vulnerability of ecological systems to changes in distant parts of the world. The recent increase in mosquito populations across the United States can be directly tied to our tremendous appetite for inexpensive fast-food hamburgers. Stop for a moment and consider some of your own hypotheses to explain this phenomenon. What have you proposed as the cause? Not so surprisingly, many people know that an increasing proportion of the meat we eat comes from cattle raised on land that was once rain forest in Central and South America. But most would still not see the connection. We have come to understand that these rain forests provide the winter nesting sites for many of the Northern Hemisphere’s migrating bird populations. As an increasing percentage of the rain forest is destroyed, so too are the winter nesting sites for these birds, resulting in a greater than normal death rate for the species. The decline in bird population has resulted in fewer songbirds returning north each year, and consequently, an increase in the mosquito population that forms a major part of the birds’ diet. This is a vivid example of the impact that individual choice, in this case eating habits, can have. The global educator’s catchphrase, “Think Globally, Act Locally” again becomes paramount.
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When a new element is introduced into any system, it can often have unanticipated effects. Hanvey suggested that there are no side effects, only surprise effects. Thus, when we intervene in any system, we should be prepared for some surprising consequences. Think of a spider’s web. Although the web is composed of multiple strands, when one is touched in even the slightest manner, it vibrates and affects the entire web. We confront numerous other examples of this principle in action almost every day. Climate change caused by the carbon dioxide buildup in the atmosphere, depletion of the ozone layer, the greenhouse effect, the poisoning of groundwater, and the weakening of the eagle’s egg as a result of the pesticide DDT moving up the food chain are all examples of these surprise consequences, which we are now trying to correct. More recently, the coronavirus first detected in Wuhan, China in the winter of 2019, quickly spread around the world. Relatively early during the pandemic, on March 5, 2020, the United States had 57 confirmed cases, while globally, nearly 100,000 people had been sickened and more than 3,000 had died. The ripple effects in just a few months after the virus first appeared, however, demonstrate the high degree of global interconnectivity and interdependence of people and places: stock markets around the world plummeted; global travel was disrupted; most universities cancelled their study abroad programs; numerous professional association meetings and conferences, athletic events and large gatherings were canceled or postponed; businesses were shuttered, schools and universities worldwide closed for significant periods of time affecting hundreds of millions of children and families, and people were ordered to stay home for weeks and sometimes months on end. We must learn, as Hanvey suggested, to look for the “concealed wiring,” the hidden functions of elements in a system.
Awareness of Human Choice
Hanvey’s fifth dimension, awareness of human choices, represents the final critical step in attaining a global perspective. The problems of choice that confront individuals, nations, and the human species as they increase their knowledge of the global system are addressed in this dimension. Until recently, people were generally unaware of the unanticipated outcomes and long-term consequences of their actions. This is no longer the case as a global consciousness or cognition is emerging. People now must consider the implications of an expanded knowledge and communication base. Negligence, or even making an unwise choice out of ignorance, may set the stage for countless problems at some future time.
Fortunately, we know a great deal more than we used to, and choices do exist. Consider the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and the growing problem of ozone depletion. We have two choices: we can continue to use CFCs because at the present time they make refrigeration and propellants possible, or we can stop using them because of their effect on the environment, while actively seeking a replacement product. The simple substitution of pump spray mechanisms for propellant sprays on a variety of products is a good example of a successful alternative. It is awareness of the problem, however, that often makes the difference in the success of alternatives.
Children can make remarkable strides toward realizing their power and ability to bring about change. Many years ago, Israeli elementary schoolchildren went on a campaign to protect some of their nation’s threatened wildflower populations. They raised the awareness of adults to such an extent that the adults stopped indiscriminately picking the flowers. Many of the threatened flowers have since been removed from the endangered species lists.
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Likewise, a number of years ago one of the authors of this text initiated a school exchange program between fifth- and sixth-grade children in northeast Ohio and schoolchildren in the Yucatán peninsula of Mexico and in Belize. Seventeen children went on the first trip from Ohio to Belize. One gesture of appreciation the Ohio children made to their host community was to present the village school with a world atlas signed by everyone at the visitors’ school. The gift seemed to be the first book the Belize school actually owned. This discovery made such an impression on the students from Ohio that on their return home they decided to do something about the situation. All the fifth- and sixth-grade students in the school became involved in operating an after-school snack bar, collecting usable books from the community, and packaging them for shipment overseas. With the proceeds from their snack bar and their collection efforts, students were able to send more than 500 books to their peers in this small village in Belize. Needless to say, the children felt tremendous pride, realizing that they, personally, could have such an impact on individuals so far away. This lesson was one that no textbook could teach them and that they will never forget.
Ariel Skelley/Image Source
What, Specifically, Should Students Study?
Multiple terms are often used when referring to a global or international education, including global education, international education, global awareness, global literacy, intercultural competence, global competence, cosmopolitanism, international mindedness, and global citizenship—and they are often used interchangeably. We are less concerned with differentiating the fine distinctions between these terms that may exist in the professional literature as we are with identifying some of the common concepts that are of utmost importance as teachers help their students to prepare to interact more effectively in a complex, interconnected world. To that end, we can identify some common characteristics of an education that addresses global competence.
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Global competence can be thought of as the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values that lead to a just and sustainable world, allowing all to function effectively in a diverse, interconnected global society (Asia Society & Longview Foundation, 2016). It is, thus, multidimensional in nature, addressing social-cognitive, emotional, and behavioral domains of learning (OECD, 2018; UNESCO, 2015). The cognitive domain covers the knowledge and thinking skills required to better understand the world and its complexities, such as knowledge of global issues and trends as well as a system’s analysis (think Hanvey’s State of the Planet Awareness and Knowledge of Global Dynamics). The social-emotional domain emphasizes the values, attitudes, and social skills that are required to live respectfully and peacefully with others, including the development of empathy, perspective consciousness, and a sense of interconnectedness between people and the environment (think here, too, of Hanvey’s Perspective Consciousness, Cross-Cultural Awareness, and Knowledge of Global Dynamics). Finally, the behavioral domain relates to conduct, performance, practical application, and engagement with others, skills such as intercultural communication and collaboration as well as developing linguistic competence (think Hanvey’s Awareness of Human Choice).
Characteristics of a Global Classroom
Most schooling is an ethnocentric activity, with most national systems of schooling addressing the needs of the nation they serve and transmitting the “proper” attitudes and beliefs thought to be necessary to maintain the society. Long-term goals in most schools, however, reflect some of the ideals of a global perspective. If you were to closely examine the philosophical goal statements of most schools, you would find statements such as these: to appreciate people from other cultures; to develop sensitivity to the needs of people different from themselves; and to increase knowledge about people around the world.
The philosophical stage has been partially set, but the methods for implementing such goal statements have created a problem. Schools in the United States, as well as most parts of the world, typically present curricular experiences through a predominantly cognitive approach and from a rather narrow ethnocentric point of view. In addition, until recently, curriculum development efforts have had little input or interaction from people of different backgrounds. Such assumptions and practices are presently being called into question. To build true professional global communities in which teachers and students can begin to collaborate in real-world problem solving, we will need to help students learn firsthand about cultures of other countries, share what they are learning locally and globally with others, collaborate on common projects across national boundaries wherever possible, study and live in other countries with students from those countries, welcome global career opportunities, and develop capacities for success in a global village. But how can these goals be achieved?
Broadly speaking, a globally competent student has knowledge and genuine curiosity about the state of the world that includes an understanding of the historical experiences of other people, their cultural practices, environmental and economic concerns; sufficient cross-cultural skills that enable her or him to communicate effectively with people from other countries and cultures; and a commitment to inclusive ethical citizenship and social action. Teachers, too, must exhibit similar knowledge, skills, and dispositions if they are to effectively guide their students toward global competence. Teachers should know the international dimensions of their subject matter; have the pedagogical skills to assist their students to analyze primary sources from other nations; and a willingness to guide students to become responsible global citizens.
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In a classroom with a global perspective, global education is not merely an add-on to an already overcrowded curriculum. Rather, relevant concepts and activities that develop a global perspective are woven throughout the curriculum. Most important, global classrooms seek to help students develop such critical cognitive skills and attitudes as empathy, interconnectedness, perspective taking, cross-cultural understanding, action orientation, and prejudice reduction. In such classrooms, students are active in building connections with others. They may have pen pals, or e-pals, with children in other parts of the world. In addition to communicating through writing with others and thus developing their language skills, students may be sharing audiotapes, videotapes, photographs, classroom materials, and other artifacts that reflect their own and each other’s cultures. Children may read books about people’s lives in other communities, which helps develop a global perspective while simultaneously achieving the goals and objectives of a language arts curriculum. Students may work on collaborative writing projects with peers in other countries, as Nate’s class was doing with students in Tanzania. In short, students go about developing their language arts and other skills with other people in mind.
Teaching in the 21st Century: Who Are Our Students?
Students in a global classroom may be pretty homogeneous, or, they might be from all over the world. Increasingly, immigrant and first generation young people, and children of parents who are in this country to work temporarily are finding themselves in American classrooms. In addition, students in American classrooms may be there virtually, through projects in which technology is used to bring them together. In Nate’s class, they are both.
In addition, many American young teachers (and some not so young!) are finding students in American schools all over the world, as well as in European, Asian, South American, or African classrooms. In today’s interconnected world, all these students have several characteristics in common. First, those in the middle grades, as they are in Nate’s classroom, are probably at the best time of their development to begin thinking about and experiencing intercultural contacts. Second, around the world they tend to be digital learners. Left to their own devices (literally and figuratively), they easily receive information from multiple, hyperlinked digital sources, like multitasking, process pictures, sounds, color, and video before processing text, network and collaborate simultaneously with many others, unconsciously read text on a page or screen in a fast pattern, are happy with just-in-time learning, and readily engage in learning that is simultaneously relevant, active, instantly useful, and fun (Jakes & Schaaf, 2019).
Transforming a traditionally oriented classroom into a global classroom, with students who are not quite so hyperdigital is also more than possible. What is important here is the notion of a broader perspective, and the willingness to try new ways of involving students and teachers in imaginative and inventive ways of teaching and learning.
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The Work of Teachers and Students
In global classrooms, local members of the international community are considered to be an integral part of the school. As events unfold around the world, representatives from the various communities are invited into classrooms to share their experience and perspectives. These presentations may occur at regular times in certain classes (e.g., social studies, foreign languages, language arts) or during regular school assemblies devoted to world events. Such involvement serves to break down some of the personal barriers that tend to develop between people. Not only are students introduced to different perspectives, they are also introduced to various cultures and languages firsthand. Such activities add a personal element to the content under study that a textbook cannot while serving to build bridges of understanding in the local community. Thus, when a natural disaster occurs somewhere in the world or when a conflict breaks out, children can associate it with real people; it is no longer an abstract event unfolding in some far-off, abstract corner of the world. Finally, having adults from other parts of the world serving as teachers helps students understand that teaching and learning can occur in a variety of ways. In all activities in the classroom, teachers and students—as well as members of the community, other teachers, local tradespeople, and those in the professions—can and should be integrated into the work of the classroom, learning from one another, teaching one another, and together being responsible for outcomes.
Knowledge as a Tool in the Classroom
Globally oriented classrooms integrate subject matter from various academic disciplines. Often these integrated curricula are jointly developed by educators from many countries. This collaboration, of course, helps ensure the accuracy of the content being studied. For example, 40 years ago the Pacific Circle Consortium was among the first international organizations to develop educational materials that integrate the perspectives and contributions of educators from the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan as well as some Pacific Island nations. One of their products, The Ocean Project, used the Pacific Ocean as a curriculum vehicle for students located in countries on the Pacific Rim (Pacific Circle Consortium, 1982). At least two such projects were developed. One provides fifth- and sixth-grade students in two different countries with an integrated look at the culture, environment, economics, and cultural interaction of the other group’s region. At the beginning of the unit, each group of students studies local conditions (environment, culture, economics, etc.). Next, a simulated transoceanic voyage brings the students to the other country, where they study and learn about one another’s way of life and local environment. A similarly developed unit for upper secondary school students looks at the use of the world’s oceans, treaties, and international law. An international project on Antarctica has also been developed. Additional collaborative projects that can engage your students are discussed later in the chapter.
The point is that knowledge in a global classroom is used as a tool to solve particular problems—or at least to suggest a direction of research and study. NASA’s Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio, for example, created a project in which students from two adjoining school districts imagined, developed, organized, and implemented a “space shot” from one planet to another. Students in each district had to apply for every “job” in the flight; the flight trajectory had to be planned, checked, and rechecked. Nearly every process involved in manning a real space shot was also involved in this one, and curricular knowledge was involved every time a problem arose, which was often! All in all this was a good example of “just in time” learning. When the day of the space shot came, they got into two school buses and each made the trip to the other district, where they were greeted by the ground crew of that “planet.” Similarly, John Hunter, a teacher in Virginia, has invented a game he calls The World Peace Game in which students (fourth grade through high school) take on the roles of real world leaders who, by a variety of different means, try to resolve dozens of seemingly intractable challenges, from nuclear proliferation to tribal warfare, financial collapse to climate change (Hunter, 2013).
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Evaluating the Results of Teaching and Learning
Assessment in global classrooms may generally be described as global and comprehensive as well. That is, because of the wide variety of activities and the emphasis on cross-disciplinary or interdisciplinary studies, global classrooms can easily use both traditional and alternative forms of assessment. If technology is used in global classrooms to stimulate curricular activities, it can also be used in evaluation. Everything from computer-generated assessments in which students receive immediate feedback to the production of videos, PowerPoint, Prezi or film presentations, Webquests, and other technology-based activities can be assessed for how they demonstrate what students know and can do. Similarly, written reports, poetry, short stories, songs, painting, sculpture, and other kinds of performance evidence can be used to gain insights into the thinking of students. Increasingly, the assessment of many internationally collaborative activities has proven to have a significant impact on knowledge attainment. The central point to remember in the assessment of global classrooms, as well as of other kinds of classrooms described in this book, is that when a wide variety of activities enhances the curriculum, they can be evaluated in a wide variety of ways.
Teaching the Global Perspective
Development of a global perspective should be integrated throughout the school curriculum, not just in the social studies. Although large-scale infusion is desirable, an international perspective can be integrated into the curriculum by individual teachers offering international focus courses, by internationalizing instructional methods and materials, by encouraging international travel as an important part of one’s education, and by internationalizing the disciplines.
International focus courses exist in such areas as anthropology, regional history, geography, global or world studies, foreign language study, art and music, world religions, ethnic group studies, and international business. Such courses seem most appropriate at the middle and secondary level and quite readily emerge from the disciplines themselves.
Internationalizing instructional methods and materials might emphasize intercultural interaction in the classroom using the special experiences of immigrant and international students as resources. Teachers should employ culturally appropriate instructional and assessment strategies, and textbooks should be reviewed for balance. Partnership programs with other schools and countries, such as those with the schools in Tanzania and Belize referred to earlier, can also be developed.
Well-developed international travel experiences can also be an integral part of many classes, from eco-tourist ventures in Central American rain-forest regions to language experience or arts opportunities in foreign countries. Such programs, if designed to go beyond the typical tourist experience and into the local culture, can provide that experiential dimension that is so critical to effective culture learning (Cushner, 2018).
Internationalizing the disciplines involves infusing key elements of a global perspective across the entire curriculum. There are numerous ways this infusion can be accomplished at all levels and in all content areas. For instance, in reading and language arts, students might study how non-American and non-British writers use the English language. World literature courses should strive to include numerous examples from a non-Western origin. And literature should be integrated with the social sciences as a way to introduce multiple perspectives on abstract concepts. Children’s literature can also be used to present concepts of interest in international education. Classic Dr. Seuss books, such as The Lorax and The Butter Battle Book, can be used in a study of the environment and the nuclear arms race, respectively. Students might also analyze the portrayal of minorities and internationals in basal textbooks.
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In science education, teachers might help students observe and understand the natural world and study the problems created as a result of increased technology and innovation. Students should be encouraged to ask questions about global warming, about water shortages, or about growing threats of extinction or global health pandemics. Then, students should be encouraged to propose solutions to many of these problems, solutions that require knowledge and input from diverse peoples and cultures, all of whom “own” the problems and will ultimately have to come together to solve them. Although technology may be universal, as proposed for possible solutions to problems, its application is quite specific. The study of what constitutes “appropriate” technology in a given situation demands sensitivity to such aspects as local environment, culture, history, and language. The topic of unplanned change can be introduced through the study of biology and evolution. Inequities of energy consumption across the planet can be explored. Finally, the global nature of such systems as the water cycle, the mineral cycle, and the energy cycle can be studied.
In foreign language education, cultural studies can be expanded beyond the mother country to include colonized people as well as immigrant and refugee populations. The role of translators in world diplomacy can be studied. Foreign languages can be taught through folk songs, and English as a Second Language or English as a Foreign Language can be introduced to foreign language teachers and students.
Mathematics education should stress the metric system. The United States is the only industrialized nation in the world not actively using metrics. Math concepts can be illustrated through problems that simultaneously teach about world trends and global issues. Traditional numeration systems from other cultures can be studied. The mathematics and possible computer application of Islamic art can be analyzed. Likewise, the impact of women on the development of mathematics (as well as other topics) can, and should be addressed.
Finally, history and social studies should look at various perspectives on similar issues. The American Revolution, for instance, certainly looked different through British eyes. Studying other nation’s textbooks, maps, or discussing current events with international students can go far in helping students develop perspective consciousness. Issues of population growth, personal family migration, history, and cultural diffusion can become the focus of historical inquiry, as can the interaction between geography, culture, and the environment.
The bottom line is that students should be encouraged to ask difficult questions and to explore possible reasons and solutions from a variety of points of view. Why, for instance, does one fifth of the world’s population (in the north or developed countries) use two thirds of the world’s natural resources, and what might be done to counterbalance this? What does it really mean to be an overpopulated nation when an individual from the United States has the same impact on the earth in terms of pollution and utilization of resources as 24 or 25 individuals from a country such as Malawi? And why should soybeans, for instance, be exported from Brazil to feed cattle in the Western nations, to the detriment of the environment and the small farmers in South America and the benefit of wealthy corporations in North America? These questions are difficult to explore, but are ultimately ones that have to be addressed if the people of the world are ever to live in true balance.
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Comprehensive International Education Frameworks
Programs for the K-12 Context
Many have recognized that in order to have the greatest influence developing an international education, rather than approaching it in a piecemeal manner, a more comprehensive, all-inclusive approach has the greatest chance of achieving lasting impact. The following organizations offer comprehensive curricular frameworks and/or policy documents that can serve to guide such a process at the school and/or district level.
International Baccalaureate Organization (IBO)
The International Baccalaureate, referred to as the IB, consists of four high-quality international education programs currently in more than 5,000 schools reaching more than 1.3 million students in 45 countries. The IB continuum offers four distinct programs (IBO, 2017):
the IB Primary Years Programme (PYP), designed for students aged 3–12, focuses on developing the whole child as an inquirer, both in the classroom and in the world outside;
the IB Middle Years Programme (MYP), for students aged 11–16, provides a framework of academic challenge encouraging students to embrace and understand the connections between traditional subjects and the real world, and become critical and reflective thinkers;
the IB Diploma Programme (DP), for students aged 16–19, offers an academically challenging and balanced program with rigorous, externally-evaluated final examinations designed to prepare students for success at university and beyond; and
the IB Career-Related Certificate (IBCC), for students aged 16–19, the newest offering from the IB, incorporates the vision and educational principles of the IB Programmes into a unique offering specifically designed for students who wish to engage in career-related learning.
As stated in the IB literature (IBO, 2017), the aim of all IB programmes is to develop internationally minded people who, recognizing their common humanity and shared guardianship of the planet, help to create a better and more peaceful world. Common to all of its programmes is how the IB organization defines international education; stating that the various programmes aim to develop citizens of the world in relation to culture, language, and learning to live together while building a sense of identity, cultural awareness, and development of universal human values. This is achieved by stimulating curiosity and inquiry in order to foster a spirit of discovery and enjoyment of learning; equipping students with the skills to learn and acquire knowledge, individually or collaboratively, and to apply these skills and knowledge accordingly across a broad range of areas. IB programmes also aim to provide international content while responding to local requirements and interests, encourage diversity and flexibility in teaching methods, and provide appropriate forms of assessment and international benchmarking.
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The IB learner profile is the IB mission statement translated into a set of learning outcomes for the 21st century. The learner profile provides a long-term vision of education, serving as a set of ideals that can inspire, motivate, and focus the work of schools and teachers, uniting them in a common purpose. The IB has incorporated the learner profile into all of its programmes so that it is the common ground on which all IB World Schools stand, and contains the essence of what they, and the programmes, are about. Thus, the Learner Profile guides all students to strive to be Inquirers, Knowledgeable, Thinkers, Communicators, Principled, Open-Minded, Caring, Risk-Takers, Balanced, and Reflective. Although the IB is focused on K-12 education, in an effort to expand the range of IB professional development experiences and to offer additional professional learning opportunities to prospective and current IB practitioners, the IB has forged partnerships with a growing number of prestigious universities and institutions from around the world to offer IB certificates in teaching and learning and IB certificates in leadership. More than 45 universities worldwide have begun to integrate IB principles across their teacher education curriculum. Graduates of these programs are thereby authorized by the IB Organization to teach in any IB World School.
Asia Society/EdSteps
The Asia Society, in conjunction with the Council of Chief State School Officers, published the document, Educating for Global Competence: Preparing our Youth to Engage the World (Boix Mansilla & Jackson, 2011). The document introduces a definition of global competence as the capacity and disposition to understand and act on issues of global significance, stating that globally competent individuals are aware, curious, and interested in learning about the world and how it works. Globally competent individuals can use the big ideas, tools, methods, and languages that are central to any discipline (mathematics, literature, history, science, and the arts) to engage the pressing issues of our time. They deploy and develop this expertise as they investigate such issues, recognizing multiple perspectives, communicating their views effectively, and taking action to improve conditions.
Applicable at all age levels and content areas is the framework presented in this document. Globally competent students should be able to perform the following four competences:
Investigate the world beyond their immediate environment, framing significant problems and conducting well-crafted and age-appropriate research.
Recognize perspectives, others’ and their own, articulating and explaining such perspectives thoughtfully and respectfully.
Communicate ideas effectively with diverse audiences, bridging geographic, linguistic, ideological, and cultural barriers.
Take action to improve conditions, viewing themselves as players in the world and participating reflectively.
The document presents numerous vivid examples of this in action in a variety of classroom contexts.
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Programs for Teacher Education
The Longview Foundation
The Longview Foundation for World Affairs and International Understanding (www.longviewfdn.org) has been helping young people in the United States learn about world regions and global issues since 1966. The foundation recognizes the critical role that teachers play in preparing young people for a new global reality while at the same time understanding that few teachers begin their careers with the deep knowledge and skills necessary to bring the world into their classrooms. A major focus of their work has been to facilitate the building of purposeful partnerships between state government, Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), colleges of education, and communities to integrate global competence into teacher and student experiences.
In 2008, the Longview Foundation brought together leaders in education, government, and other sectors to examine what was being done in schools, colleges, and departments of education to prepare future teachers for the new global reality and to generate momentum to do more. The result was the commissioning of a new report and funding stream for Longview. Teacher Preparation for the Global Age: The Imperative for Change was published and made available as one means to highlight promising practices and to suggest a framework for internationalizing the education of all pre–service teachers and increasing the number of world language teachers, especially in less commonly taught languages (Longview, 2008).
World Savvy–Global Competence Certificate
World Savvy (www.worldsavvy.org) is a national education nonprofit founded in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks that works with educators, schools, and districts to integrate global competence into teaching and learning in K-12 classrooms. World Savvy has reached more than half a million students and 3,500 teachers, in part, through their Global Competence Certificate program (GCC), the first-of-its-kind, graduate-level certificate program in global competence education for teachers. Developed in collaboration with leading experts in global education from Teachers College of Columbia University and the Asia Society, the GCC is designed specifically for in-service educators who are interested in embedding global learning into their teaching practice and preparing their students for the global reality beyond the classroom. The program combines online classes, an international field experience, and a capstone project.
Programs That Link Schools
In addition to the many global education activities and projects in which individual schools and classrooms can participate, a number of projects and networks have been formed that are designed to better inform and connect schools around the world. Following are summaries of a few of these programs in which students from around the world may participate.
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Associated Schools Project Network of UNESCO
The Associated Schools Project Network (ASPnet), boasting the largest international program for schools in the world, provides a network for more than 11,500 schools from 182 nations to engage in a variety of collaborative activities (https://aspnet.unesco.org/en-us/Pages/default.aspx). The Baltic Sea Project, for example, begun in 1998, works with 200 schools in nine countries that border the Baltic Sea, raising awareness of environmental issues in the region while helping students understand the science, social, and cultural aspects of human interdependence. Other projects include Breaking the Silence—The Transatlantic Slave Trade Educational Project (TST), World Heritage Education Project, the Educational Toolkit on Dolphins, an online 24-hour student conference on globalization, a UNESCO antiracism campaign, and the innovative Mondialogo Intercultural Dialogue and Exchange initiative.
Global Nomads
Global Nomads Group (www.gng.org) fosters dialogue and understanding among more than 1 million of the world’s youth who reside in over 60 countries. Since fewer than 3% of the world’s young people travel during their school years, Global Nomads uses technology to facilitate conversations between middle school and high school students who otherwise would not meet.
GLOBE
GLOBE (Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment, www.globe.gov) is a worldwide hands-on, primary and secondary school-based science and education program. GLOBE’s vision promotes and supports students, teachers, and scientists to collaborate on inquiry-based investigations of the environment and the Earth system, working in close partnership with NASA and NSF Earth System Science Projects (ESSPs) in study and research about the dynamics of Earth’s environment. Started on Earth Day 1995, today the international GLOBE network has grown to include representatives from 123 participating countries and 140 U.S. partners coordinating GLOBE activities that are integrated into their local and regional communities. Due to their efforts, there are more than 39,000 GLOBE-trained teachers representing over 37,000 schools around the world. GLOBE students have contributed more than 20 million measurements to the GLOBE database for use in their inquiry-based science projects.
LinkTV
LinkTV (www.linktv.org) is the first television channel and website dedicated to providing global perspectives on news, events, and culture, connecting viewers with people and organizations in the forefront of social change and the cultures of an increasingly global community.
International Children’s Digital Library
International Children’s Digital Library (www.icdlbooks.org) is an online collection of books that represents outstanding historical and contemporary books from throughout the world. The ultimate goal is to have every culture and language represented so that every child can know and appreciate the riches of children’s literature from the world community.
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iEARN
iEARN (www.iearn.org) is the world’s largest nonprofit global network that enables young people to use the Internet and other new technologies to engage in collaborative educational projects that both enhance learning and make a difference in the world. More than 30,000 schools representing more than 140 nations engage more than 50,000 teachers and 2 million students each year in a variety of activities that work across national boundaries. While the use of technology is often the main focus, the fact that students engage across cultures makes this an ideal global education experience itself. In addition to the technology-based format, annual conferences enable teachers to meet face-to-face to exchange ideas and build relationships.
Model UN
Model UN (www.unausa.org/model-un) is an innovative United Nations–based educational program that engages middle school and high school students in an exploration of current world issues through interactive simulations and curricular materials. Model UN cultivates literacy and leadership as students explore important topics such as peacekeeping, sustainable development, and human rights. Model United Nations is an authentic simulation of the UN General Assembly, UN Security Council, or other multilateral body, which introduces students to the world of diplomacy, negotiation, and decision making.
At Model UN, students step into the shoes of ambassadors of countries that are members of the United Nations, from Argentina to Zimbabwe. The students, better known as “delegates,” debate current issues on the organization’s vast agenda. They prepare draft resolutions, plot strategy, negotiate with supporters and adversaries, resolve conflicts, and navigate the UN’s rules of procedure—all in the interest of resolving problems that affect the world.
Perspectives on a Globally Oriented Curriculum
Reflect upon the Case Study at the beginning of the chapter. What Nate attempted to do in the first part of the school year was to integrate into his curriculum three types of knowledge that will help his students evaluate their interpersonal experiences both inside and outside school. First, he integrated knowledge and understanding of prejudice formation and prejudice reduction (see Chapter 6). Second, he tapped into the growing body of knowledge related to the development of an international perspective. Third, he is applying cooperative learning strategies, thus providing students with necessary practice in developing the skills needed for collaborative living and working.
Nate’s classroom activities reflect a number of strategies related to global or intercultural education.
Nate has demonstrated that it is possible to combine global education with the development of traditional curriculum skills in such areas as language arts, social studies, and art.
He has not shied away from real but sensitive issues such as immigration, prejudice, and interpersonal conflict that greatly affect the lives of his students. Rather, he has acknowledged these issues as real problems that are worth confronting and analyzing. And he has done this in a subtle, creative manner that will set the stage for subsequent activity once everyone has a common foundation.
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By integrating traditional content areas, the day is not broken into brief time slots during which content and curricular experiences are segregated from one another. Rather, classroom activities are designed to be meaningful and relate to the lives and experiences of the students. Through the partnership story, for example, students have an opportunity to develop their language arts skills while they learn valuable social studies concepts about culture, specific countries, and interpersonal interaction. At the same time, students work in cooperative groups and develop linkages with others around the world.
He has actively sought to reduce prejudice, not by simply telling students that it is wrong but by enabling them to learn, firsthand, about similarities and differences among at least two groups of people.
These examples represent just the beginning of what is possible in a globally oriented classroom.
Ethical Concerns
Clearly, there are a variety of ethical issues involved in developing a global classroom. Among them are the fair allocation of available resources (including computers and other technology), the need to consider families and communities when discussing global concerns, and perhaps most important, the need to balance advocacy with inquiry. Although it is tempting for educators to become advocates when discussing the world’s problems, the role of schooling remains one of inquiry. Assessing students on the degree to which they are able to use the tools of inquiry, on the breadth and depth of their research, on their analytical skills, and on their creativity in proposing solutions is more appropriate than assessing them on the degree to which they subscribe to a particular point of view.
Similarly, there are ethical considerations involved in the length of time given to newer ideas such as global education. Its emphasis on attitude and behavior change may require educators to allocate large amounts of time to achieve even modest gains. Social psychologists have had a difficult time demonstrating that significant, long-lasting behavior change follows from short-term attitude change efforts. Although it may be possible to demonstrate a change in attitude as a result of a short-term intervention (efforts at a summer camp program, for instance), there has been little evidence to demonstrate either that the attitude change persists or that it leads to a subsequent long-term change in behavior.
The converse may in fact be true, as seen in research concerning attitudes toward people with disabilities. An individual who has had little contact with persons with disabilities may initially react with discomfort or pity and be acutely aware of the disability. In one study, for example, teachers participating in an intensive 5-week summer training institute on teaching young children with disabilities initially demonstrated a negative change in attitude, as measured by the Attitudes Toward Disabled Persons scale (Stahlman, Safford, Pisarchick, Miller, & Dyer, 1989). Positive attitudes, as defined by this scale, are those that regard a person with disabilities as essentially like everyone else, not as someone special. For many of the teachers in this study, this workshop was their first exposure to children with disabilities, and as a result, they had difficulty not being overly solicitous and eager to help. Later follow-up experiences with students with disabilities gradually led to more “normalized” attitudes.
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Critical Incident
A Delayed Response
A couple of days after Nate’s class received the completion of their partnership story, Nate overheard Lenny and Paul giggling and talking about how strange it was that girls as young as 12 years of age could get married in parts of Tanzania. They thought it even more unusual that the girl’s father would be the one to encourage it.
Why do you think Lenny and Paul would, after two days, begin to ridicule the people they had spent time studying about?
How would you handle the immediate situation?
What might you do to prevent this reaction from happening?
Summary
This chapter takes as its starting point the reality that we live in an interconnected, interdependent, global society and that it is the responsibility of teachers and schools to prepare students to live within it in a productive manner. Globalization has many meanings for many different people. In this chapter it means actively introducing students to people and ideas from around the world, helping students learn to think in terms of whole systems (economic, political, social), and acquainting students with global issues that are certain to have an impact on their lives. International education should help students learn to participate with other students from all over the planet in thinking through hard questions involving not only intercultural competence but also the ability to span all kinds of social as well as geographical boundaries.
When people encounter situations that induce or require them to behave in new and different ways for an extended period of time, there is a real possibility for long-term attitude and behavior change. If, for instance, school organizational structures can be modified to encourage or require intergroup interaction over an extended period of time, the likelihood that everyone may learn to regard themselves as tolerant, understanding, and able to get along with people increases. Government legislation that provides mandates for altering organizational structure on a national level is based on this idea. Official support and status for bilingualism in Canada or multilingualism in Switzerland are promising examples of this policy in action. Never believe, however, that mandates alone will do the job. What is required is persistent face-to-face activity and a good deal of trial and error!
Key Terms
cross-cultural awareness
globalization
global perspective
perspective consciousness
state of the planet awareness
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Future’s Window
Purpose: To project the needs of individuals and society in the years ahead, and to examine what this means for educators.
Instructions: In this activity you are to become a futurist and project into the future—both your own and that of the world. Divide a page into quadrants, with the top half representing your “Self” and the bottom half representing the “World.” The left side of each half represents “5 years,” and the right half represents “20 years” into the future. You are to make at least five entries in each quadrant; things you expect to have accomplished or to be dealing with in 5 years and in 20 years, and things you expect the world to be confronting, both in 5 years and 20 years. Do not record what you wish will happen but what you predict will occur based on what you see happening today. Do this activity alone at first. If you are doing this in a group setting, after a short while, share your responses with others and compile a group list.
Self—5 years Self—20 years
World—5 years World—20 years
Look closely at what is on your list, or, if you have done this activity in a group, look closely at the compilation. What messages seem to jump out at you as you look closely at the response patterns? Do not be surprised if quick responses do not emerge. Take some time to analyze the similarities as well as the differences in the columns. What generalizations seem to emerge?
What questions do you have as a result of the generalizations you observed?
As people analyze their responses, it is not uncommon to say something like, “It seems as if things will be quite nice and easy for individuals, but there will still be problems in the world.” This is a critical observation. If you have not already made this observation yourself, please consider it for a moment. Does such a statement hold true for your responses to the above task?
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Let’s assume that you can safely make the same observation and statement given the responses on your list. What is the responsibility one has to others? Why do you think it is that, in general, people project their own future to be fine even when the rest of the world continues to face problems and challenges?
Discuss your responses to the above with others in a group. Do not be surprised if there is much disagreement over people’s responses.
Next, look closely at your projections for the world. What generalizations seem to stand out as you analyze this information?
Which of the following statements can you agree with given the projections you have made for the world? Check one.
The issues that the world will face seem quite pessimistic and insurmountable.
The issues that the world will face seem complex but generally will be resolved.
It is often said that each individual can and must do her or his own part to help improve the bigger picture. All of the problems the world will face, whether they are in fact solved or not, will require the coordinated efforts of many different people from many different career and cultural backgrounds who are able to work together. The problems of the world are such that they will be solved by the coordinated efforts of many different people and nations, or they will not be solved at all.
What is the role of education in helping people develop the ability to solve the problems that you believe the world will face?
What are some things you can do through your teaching that will help your students develop the awareness, knowledge, and skills necessary to collaborate with others whose ways of interacting and values may be quite different from their own?
Classroom Activities
A common activity in primary and middle school is to introduce students to the media and the world around them by having them report on current events from local newspapers and other sources. This activity extends the traditional current events activity, asking students to utilize the global media and report on a current event from multiple perspectives. Identify a current-events topic of global significance, such as an event that crosses national boundaries or an activity occurring in one nation that has direct impact elsewhere. Locate the same news story from at least three nations (at least one from a non–English-speaking nation). A few good places to find such sources include: www.inkdrop.net/news; www.worldpress.org
Children’s literature is an exceptional way to introduce multiple perspectives to young people. Identify a topic of concern to children worldwide. Then, seek out children’s books that address the topic or concept from multiple experiences. Develop an annotated bibliography of your recommendations and share it with others.
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Film is another ideal way to introduce multiple perspectives and intercultural conflict to middle and secondary school age students. A number of films have been produced that display people interacting in a variety of intercultural contexts—some humorous and others more serious in nature, but all providing visual examples of effective as well as ineffective cross-cultural encounters. Some example of films addressing this include: Mr. Baseball, Mosquito Coast, Moscow on the Hudson, Coming to America, Planet of the Apes, Karate Kid, My Big Fat Greek Wedding, Slumdog Millionnaire, The Joy Luck Club, Lion, Outsourced, and Fiddler on the Roof. Seek out additional films useful for this purpose. Foreign films also provide an exceptional opportunity to look closely into the lives of others. With this, you can do a comparative analysis by focusing on elements that reflect cross-cultural similarities and differences in behavior, value, or belief.
Knowledge of global systems, as Hanvey proposed, is really about understanding global interconnectedness. High school students can research innovations in a range of contexts (e.g., science, technology, agriculture, medicine) and explore the “downstream” unanticipated impact of that innovation. The introduction of DDT, for example, while increasing crop yield many times over, had an unanticipated detrimental impact on other life forms once it entered the food chain. This was first noted in the late 1950s when spraying to control the beetles that carry Dutch elm disease resulted in early deaths of robins in Michigan and elsewhere. Researchers discovered that earthworms were accumulating the pesticide and that the robins eating them were being poisoned. Other birds later were impacted as well, including the eagle whose egg shells were weakened as a result of the chemical. What other systemic impacts can be identified?
Reflective Questions
The Case Study teacher, Nate Kozlowski, developed a number of activities and curricular redesigns that infused global awareness into his sixth-grade curriculum. Still, he is bothered by several aspects of his work.
1. How can he continue to educate himself about new methods of global education while simultaneously keeping up with student needs and school requirements? Time is definitely a problem.
2. He knows that the United States is a widely diverse country with many unsolved problems regarding race and ethnicity. How can he justify moving to a global perspective when the problems at home remain so critical?
3. Although he has been relatively successful in incorporating a global perspective into social studies, language arts, and some of the arts, how can he do the same with such seemingly culture-neutral subjects as mathematics and science?
4. He has found that many students do not relate at all to the idea of ethnicity. Rather, they think of themselves as Americans and have neither knowledge of nor emotional ties to their own ethnic roots. How can he encourage these students to appreciate and value ethnic and racial diversity without seeming to denigrate the American way of life?
5. Not every teacher and administrator in his school appreciates the direction Nate is taking toward a global perspective. How can he continue to broaden his students’ perspectives in the face of criticism from his colleagues?
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