For this assignment, you will develop the beginning stages of a literature review. Using the CSU Online Library, find two scholarly, peer-reviewed articles u

Chapter 9 Reviewing the Literature

The greatest gift you can give yourself as a researcher is to read and analyze the literature surrounding your study as early as possible. Too often, students see the literature review as something to do while waiting for their data to be collected. This may be because they don’t fully understand the importance and purpose of the review. It may also be because they are uncertain of the exact procedures to follow for conducting a literature search. The importance of a literature search is stated by Hart (2009) in his book, Doing a Literature Review:

A review of the literature is important because without it you will not acquire an understanding of your topic, of what has already been done on it, how it has been researched, and what the key issues are. In your written project you will be expected to show that you understand previous research on your topic. This amounts to showing that you have understood the main theories in the subject area and how they have been applied and developed, as well as the main criticisms that have been made of work on the topic. (p. 1)

A similar notion was advanced by Boote and Beile (2005); they made the following points:

A substantive, thorough, sophisticated literature review is a precondition for doing substantive, thorough, sophisticated research. . . . A researcher cannot perform significant research without first understanding the literature in the field. Not understanding the prior research clearly puts a researcher at a disadvantage. (p. 3)

A comprehensive, up-to-date literature review allows you to get to the frontier in your area of research and, at the same time, become an expert in your field. In addition, the insights and knowledge you gain provide the basis for a better-designed study and enhance the possibility of obtaining significant results. A review of the literature is a vital part of the research process.

A literature review is a two-phase activity. In the first phase, you conduct the review by identifying appropriate resources, searching for relevant materials, and analyzing, synthesizing, and organizing the results; the second phase is the actual writing of the review, which culminates in the completed product. The literature review section of a study is found where reference is made to the related research and theory around your topic. The location may vary, depending on your selected methodology. For example, in some qualitative studies, authors might choose to locate the literature section toward the end of the dissertation, following discussion of the emerging theory, which, according to Creswell (2004), “allows the views of the participants to emerge without being constrained by the views of others from the literature” (p. 90). Researchers in quantitative studies typically place their discussion of the literature at the beginning of a study, usually in a separate chapter titled “Review of the Literature.” Frequently, the literature is referred to again at the end of the study when comparing the study’s findings to the literature.

This chapter helps you acquire the skills to conduct and write a thorough and systematic review of the literature in your field of interest. The chapter includes the purpose and scope of the literature review, notes on its preparation, specific steps in conducting a literature review, and strategies and techniques for writing the literature review.

Purpose and Scope

What is a literature review? According to Creswell (2004), “A literature review is a written summary of journal articles, books, and other documents that describe the past and current state of information; organizes the literature into topics; and documents a need for a proposed study” (p. 89). Reviewing the literature involves locating, analyzing, synthesizing, and organizing previous research and documents (periodicals, books, abstracts, etc.) related to your study area. The goal is to obtain a detailed, cutting-edge knowledge of your particular topic. To do this, you must immerse yourself in your subject by reading extensively and voraciously. A solid and comprehensive review of the literature accomplishes several important purposes. It helps you to do the following:

1. Focus the purpose of your study more precisely.

2. Develop a conceptual or theoretical framework that might be used to guide your research.

3. Identify key variables for study and suggest relationships among them if you are completing a quantitative study; if you are conducting a qualitative study, identify the concepts or topics you plan to study.

1. Provide a historical background for your study.

2. Uncover previous research similar to your own that can be meaningfully extended.

3. Determine the relationship of your topic relative to current and past studies.

4. Identify scholars and theorists in your area of study.

5. Form a basis for determining the significance of your study.

6. Uncover questionnaires or tests previously validated.

7. Link your findings to previous studies. (Do your findings support or contradict them?)

We hope we convinced you of the importance of doing an early and comprehensive review of the literature. The benefits are numerous, especially in the initial stages of designing a dissertation study.

One of the biggest frustrations students encounter is determining how long and how comprehensive the review should be. Even though you must read broadly to develop perspective about your topic, don’t make the mistake of thinking that you must include in the bibliography every book, article, or study read. The literature review is not an aggregation of every book and article related to your topic; it is always selective. Therefore, you must be discriminating and include only the most relevant information. Remember that bigger is not better! The shotgun approach indicates a lack of knowledge about what is relevant information. Unfortunately, no magic formula exists to guide your selection; it is a judgment call on your part. You know it is time to quit when you keep encountering the same references and can’t find important new resources.

Generally speaking, most advisors prefer the literature review chapter to be around 20 to 40 pages. However, keep in mind that this can vary, depending on the breadth and complexity of your study and the preferences of your advisor. Take time to clarify with your advisor’s preferences prior to writing the review.

Preparation

Step 1 in writing your literature review requires that you become knowledgeable about what references are available and where to find them, what services your library provides, and the regulations and procedures regarding the use of library materials.

It is also wise to cultivate a friendship with a librarian or two. Their knowledge and expertise can save you considerable time searching for information. Most librarians are willing to make appointments to help you create a search strategy, determine appropriate print and electronic databases for your research needs, and explain the interlibrary loan services available to you. It is also a good idea to consult librarians about nontraditional sources on your topic, such as think tanks, professional associations, government documents, and publications from nonprofit organizations.

Because the majority of academic literature is now available online, you needn’t spend hours using call numbers to browse the stacks of your library. Most of your research will be conducted online using your own computer from home or the office. This means that you must become computer literate and Internet savvy to make your dissertation research easier. Becoming familiar with search engines and how they work (using keywords, Boolean operators, truncation, and online help) is essential. There certainly are downsides to computers. Any user knows the frustration of crashes, lost files, and inoperable software. But, for the most part, it will be your best friend and most essential tool for completing your dissertation. Hardware and software advances continue to make conducting research more and more efficient.

Conducting a thorough and scholarly review of the literature involves eight basic steps. The steps are not necessarily sequential; you will probably move back and forth between them.

1. Identify keywords or descriptors.

2. Create a search query.

3. Identify relevant literature sources.

4. Search the literature and collect relevant materials.

5. Critically read and analyze the literature.

6. Synthesize the literature.

7. Organize the literature.

8. Write the literature review.

Step 1: Identify Keywords or Descriptors

Before beginning a search of the literature, it is important to develop a search strategy that effectively locates useful, relevant information. This involves identifying keywords or descriptors to guide your review of the literature. Begin by creating a preliminary working title for your study that focuses on what it is you want to know. Because it’s a working title, it can always be revised. Also, state a central research question that describes the variables or concepts you need to examine in your literature review. Forcing yourself to write your topic as a single question requires you to bring it into clearer focus. Then, identify the key concepts in your title and central research question. The following are some examples:

· What effect does parental involvement have on the dropout rate of bilingual middle school students?

· What are the differences between Mexicans and Mexican Americans in their perceptions of and feelings toward their pets?

· How does language use shape the identity of language-minority students?

Precise questions such as these help focus and guide the literature review. Depending on the complexity of your research, you may require several research questions to incorporate all of the variables or concepts you wish to examine in your dissertation. Also include alternative ways of phrasing and expressing concepts and ideas by consulting subject dictionaries and encyclopedias for the common terminology in your study area. Using an index or thesaurus is also advisable in order to establish useful terms. Various academic disciplines have their own thesauri. Some examples are Thesaurus of ERIC Descript

From your research question(s) and working title, compile a list of keywords or descriptors related to your topic.

What effect does parental involvement have on the dropout rate of bilingual middle school students? Keywords include

· parental involvement

· dropout rate

· bilingual

· middle school students

Synonyms for parental involvement are parent participation, mother involvement, and father involvement. Synonyms for bilingual include English as a second language and English language learners.

Helpful Hint

it is wise to develop a system to track keywords or descriptors and the corresponding volumes and indexes. One effective way is to create a matrix for each abstract or index you consult. Across the top, include the keywords or descriptors you selected for that reference; down the left margin, list the dates of the volumes, starting with the most recent. As you go through each volume, place a check under the descriptors you used next to the date of the volume you used.◾

Step 2: Create a Search Query

Once you have identified your keywords, you are ready to create a search query to use in the electronic databases. Using the example from Step 1—“What effect does parental involvement have on the dropout rate of bilingual middle school students?”—you would create a search query that looks like this:

(“parental involvement” OR “mother involvement” OR “father involvement” OR “parent participation”) AND (dropout* OR “drop out*”) AND (bilingual OR “English language learner*” OR “English as a second language”) AND (“middle school student*” or “junior high school student*”)

Boolean Operators

Boolean operators define the relationships between words or groups of words. These commands to the database expand or limit your search by combining terms using the words and, or, or not. For example, to search for “What effect does alcohol have on college students’ self-esteem?” type as your words: alcohol, college students, self-esteem.

· AND narrows the search by obtaining only those items with both Concept 1 and Concept 2 (“college students” AND “self-esteem”)

· OR broadens the search by obtaining all items with either Concept 1 or Concept 2 (“self-esteem” OR “self-confidence”)

· NOT obtains items with Concept 1 but eliminates those with Concept 2 (“alcohol” NOT “illegal drugs”)

Notice that multiword phrases were placed inside quotation marks. This is necessary to search those words in that order as a phrase. Remember to put phrases of two or more words in quotation marks.

Truncation

Through this process, you find variations of keywords by adding a truncation symbol to the root. For example, to retrieve all variations on the root “psycholog” (i.e., to find psychological, psychologist, psychology), type

Psycholog*

Truncation symbols vary with different databases (e.g., *, ?, $, !).

Online Help

Instructions for using electronic databases are built into the system. Look for online help buttons or links such as “advanced search” and “search tips.” Consult online help to learn how to enter searches, what truncation symbol to use, how to display results, and how to print or download records.

Internet Search Engines

Once you have identified your keywords and developed appropriate search queries, you then select various search engines in which to input your queries. Search engines are tools designed to scan the Internet for sites and pages, which are then stored in indexes or databases. You search the contents of databases by typing selected keywords in the text box located on the search engine’s home page. The search engine then retrieves documents that match your keywords and displays the results ranked in order of that engine’s relevance.

Comparisons of Search Engines

The three major search engines used today are Google (http://www.google.com), Yahoo! Bing (http://www.bing.com), and Ask.com (http://www.ask.com). A search engine for scholarly or academic links is Google Scholar (http://scholar.google.com). You will find many peer-reviewed articles, books, and so on, as well as how often they are cited in other publications.

There are also specialty search engines and virtual libraries in different disciplines, such as the WWW Virtual Library for Anthropology (http://www.anthropologie.net). You can find listings for a variety of specialty search engines at Search Engine Guide (http://www.searchengineguide.com/searchengines.html). Also available is a website by Teach Thought that displays 100 search engines for academic research (https://www.teachthought.com/learning/100-search-engines-for-academic-research/).

A valuable resource for searching the “Deep Web” (a vast repository of information not accessible by search engines and directories) may be found on a page on the Online College Blog titled “100 Useful Tips and Tools to Research the Deep Web.” The author provides tips, strategies, and helpful articles and resources for deep searching (http://www.online-college-blog.com/index.php/features/100-useful-tips-and-tools-to-research-the-deep-web).

Evaluating Websites

Since anyone can post information on the Internet without any oversight or editing or fact checking, it is important that you evaluate any information that you find on the Internet to determine its credibility and authority before using it in your research. Look at the URL to see if it is a personal website, an educational site, a commercial site, or a nonprofit organization site. Look for authorship of the site (Is there an “About Us” link somewhere on the page?) and when the page was last updated. Does the site try to persuade or to sell something, or is it simply providing information? Is there any bias that you can detect? Can you validate the information through another source?

Searching Blogs

There are a variety of blog search engines available; however, we found Google Blog Search (https://blog.google/products/search/) to be one of the fastest and one that returns posts right on topic. The main focus of Google Blog Search is on relevance, but posts can also be sorted by date (click on the top right of the results page). In addition, you can keep track of new postings in your areas of interest via RSS feeds—short summaries sent from your favorite websites.

Step 3: Identify Relevant Literature Sources

The best place to begin your search is with the databases and indexes in your academic area. They help you identify and locate research articles and other sources of information related to your research topic. A detailed description of available secondary sources is beyond the scope of this book. However, as an example, we list some major resources traditionally used by education and social science researchers. To find resources in your specific academic discipline, do a keyword search in your university library’s online catalog for your discipline (e.g., sociology, psychology, anthropology) followed by the word handbook, encyclopedia, bibliography, thesaurus, dictionary, abstract, measures, and so on. Also, consult with librarians at your university library or with faculty in your graduate program for resources they turn to when beginning a new research project.

In planning your search strategy, it is important to determine which academic disciplines are conducting research in your topic area. It is more than likely that your research overlaps with other disciplines. For example, in the third research question in Step 1—“How does language use shape the identity of language-minority students?”—you must decide which academic disciplines might conduct research on this topic. Possibilities include anthropology, psychology, education, communication, and sociology.

The following is a list a variety of literature sources:

Step 4: Search the Literature and Collect Relevant Materials

Begin your search for relevant literature by searching the databases, indexes, books, and other sources listed in Step 3. Examine your results. Are the materials you are finding relevant? Do you see other keywords you could add or subtract from your search? Do particular authors seem to be conducting research on this topic? Do particular journals seem to be publishing research in this area? Use this information to help you focus your search.

When searching the Internet for literature, remember that some information may not be dependable, meaning it has not passed the standards of peer reviewers, journal editors, or book publishers. Creswell (2004) elaborated this point by stating, “Material obtained from Web sites not in national, refereed journals needs to be carefully screened to determine the qualifications of the author, the quality of the writing, and the scope and rigor of data collection and analysis” (p. 104). Once you have reviewed the list of references located in your database searches, the next step is to determine which books and articles are most relevant to your study and collect each primary source. Primary source documents contain the original work of researchers and authors. As a serious researcher, you should not rely solely on secondary sources. They do not always provide reliable information. Secondary sources interpret, analyze, or summarize primary sources. They include such published works as newspapers, encyclopedias, handbooks, conference proceedings, and so on. Your review should be based on primary sources whenever possible.

Collecting primary literature consists of browsing, skimming, reading, and photocopying books and documents related to your study. Two types of literature you should collect for your review are the theoretical literature and the research literature. Since most dissertations have a theoretical base, you need to be familiar with those conceptual areas related to your study. In addition, you must be thoroughly familiar with previous research in your subject area.

Collecting literature is an ongoing process, and you need some mechanism for classifying it into those that have a direct bearing on your topic and those that bear generally on your topic. Since it is not feasible to collect all the titles yielded in your search of secondary sources, you must be selective and choose only those most relevant to your study. Always keep in mind your study’s purpose. As you gather and sort documents, ask yourself, How does this relate to my problem? One strategy is to categorize each book or article as either very important, moderately important, or somewhat important to your study.

Keeping Track of Pertinent Documents: Organizing Strategies

It is helpful to keep a record of each book or document you consult. With so many to read, you can easily lose track of those already reviewed. You should prepare bibliographic citations for each. One simple way is to list the bibliographic information on index cards and keep them arranged alphabetically by the last name of the author. Another way is to simply maintain an ongoing record of the bibliographic data in your computer. Reference management software programs you download to your computer, such as EndNote, ProCite, Connotea, and Zotero, enable you to create a list of citations, and they automatically convert them into the appropriate style format. The newest release of Microsoft Word also allows you to choose a citation style format, such as American Psychological Association (APA). Reference management databases, such as RefWor

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