For your replies, compare and contrast the defect in signaling that you researched with that of at least 2 of your classmates. 300 word min

For your replies, compare and contrast the defect in signaling that you researched with that of at least 2 of your classmates. 300 word min

my post:

Cells have structures on the surface of the membrane that perform signaling roles. These roles include cell to cell communication and the response to the hormone. Signaling is essential, particularly in the endocrine system, where regulation occurs based on the feedback loops. Should signaling fail to appear, the body could develop diseases that could be fatal. Doctors cannot treat most of the signaling conditions. Therefore, the patient has to control it for the rest of their lives. Diabetes is one such disease, and it appears after the body has failed to respond to insulin or when the pancreas fails to produce enough hormone levels.

Diabetes is a signaling disease caused by issues within the endocrine system. Glucose is the primary source of energy in the human body. The brain heavily relies on sugar as a source of energy, and so do muscles. For glucose to get into the cells, there has to be insulin. The hormone attaches to insulin receptors on the surface of cells, increasing their affinity to glucose. The cell will then absorb large quantities of the sugar, reducing their levels in the blood. Type II diabetes develops when this signaling process becomes faulty (Leslie, 2013). When an individual consumes large amounts of sugars, the insulin levels increase; due to lifestyle choices (Leslie, 2013), some people may have high glucose levels in the blood for a long time. The result of this is that the levels of insulin will increase. The body will develop some degree of resistance to insulin. As a result, the body will require high levels of insulin to absorb glucose. The amount of insulin produced by the patient naturally will not be enough to initiate glucose intake. The body’s cells will, therefore, have low energy, and they may die of starvation. Type I diabetes develops when the pancreas fails to produce adequate insulin levels (Leslie, 2013). Thus, the cells will not intake enough glucose, and this may result in cell starvation.

The disease can be linked to the original sin, as mentioned in Romans 8: 18-25. The Bible verse states that God’s punishment to human beings is suffering on earth (Biblegateway, 2021), and this is because of the original sin caused by Adam. Evil passes from one generation to the next; therefore, everyone is guilty. The verse explains that the suffering bestowed upon human beings is to last for the entirety of their lives (Biblegateway, 2021). Human beings can only seek refuge from God, and shelter will come once they die following the creator’s acceptance (Biblegateway, 2021). Diabetes matches the descriptions of the suffering because of a few factors. For one, once an individual develops diabetes, they will remain with it for the rest of their lives. Therefore, the Bible’s explanation of a punishment that lasts for the entirety of a human’s life matches diabetes.

In conclusion, cells communicate through structures on the surface of their membranes. They play a crucial role in the endocrine system to regulate the uptake of glucose. Whenever this signaling experiences a fault, there will be difficulty controlling blood glucose levels resulting in diabetes. The disease lasts for the rest of a patient’s life, which matches the consequences of the original sin. The result is that human beings will experience suffering for the rest of their lives, and God can only bestow refuge following death.

References

Biblegateway. (2021). Redirect Notice. BibleGateway. Retrieved 25 March 2021, from

https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.biblegateway.com/passage/%3fsearch=Romans%2b8:18-25&version=ESV&interface=amp.

Leslie, R. (2013). Diabetes (1st ed.). Manson Pub.

first post:

Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (NDI) is one of four different types of diabetes insipidus. NDI occurs due to a genetic mutation in arginine vasopressin receptors also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH) receptors (Hui & Radbel, 2017). Congenital NDI is an x-linked mutation of vasopressin 2 receptors (V2Rs). The V2R is one of the 7 transmembrane domain families of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) (Robben, et al. 2004). V2Rs are located on the basolateral side of epithelial cells that line the distal tubule/collecting duct of the nephron. Millions of nephrons make up the kidneys and are responsible for filtering products out of the blood. A nephron uses two segments to filter the blood. The first is the glomerulus which filters the blood the products that pass then enter the second segment. The second segment is the tubular system which will return necessary substances such as water and Na+. Individuals with congenital NDI have mutated ADH receptors that affect the normal pathway by which water is removed and reabsorbed (Hui & Radbel, 2017) (Robben, et al. 2004).

ADH Production & Importance

The neuropeptide, ADH, is synthesized in the hypothalamus. The neuropeptide is then secreted into the blood by the pituitary gland. The primary function of ADH is to conserve water volume in the body by decreasing the volume lost in the urine. ADH conserves water by targeting the distal part of the nephron. ADH then binds to ADH receptors on the basolateral membrane of the epithelial cells. This process causes exocytosis of vesicles inside the epithelial cells that carry aquaporin 2 channels. Aquaporin 2 channels are usually regulated and stored inside the cell; they are released when ADH is bound to the cell. The aquaporin 2 channels increase water reabsorption (Madrazo-Ibarra & Vaitla, 2020).

Normal pathway (Focusing on water)

In a nephron of the kidneys, filtration begins when the afferent arteriole carries blood to the glomerulus of the nephron. The glomerulus filters out larger molecules allowing small molecules such as water and Na+ to pass. The water will then enter the bowman’s capsule and proximal convoluted tubule (PCT). In the PCT 65% of water is reabsorbed through aquaporin 1 channels into the efferent arteriole (Madrazo-Ibarra & Vaitla, 2020). The remaining water then passes through the Loop of Henle, distal collecting tubule, and finally the collecting duct. In the collecting duct, about 10% of water can be absorbed through aquaporin 2 channels but only in response to ADH (Madrazo-Ibarra & Vaitla, 2020).

NDI pathway abnormality

NDI prevents the normal reabsorption of water in the collecting duct by preventing ADH binding to the ADH receptors; this is due to the mutated/inactive ADH receptors. Characteristics indicative of the disorder include polyuria, hypotonic urine (diluted urine), polydipsia, and nocturia. Elevated levels of ADH in the blood can also be indicative of NDI. In most cases, the prognosis of DI is favorable however, for those with NDI it is not. This is due to the inability to treat the underlying cause of the disorder. Treatment management is crucial to reducing complications. Managing the NDI involves constantly doing blood work and having water readily available. For those with NDI dehydration can have dire consequences such as brain damage, kidney damage, and tachycardia. Management will depend on other health complications and a physician assessment (Hui & Radbel, 2017).

Bible Connection

Romans 8:18-25 emphasizes the importance of suffering and that salvation, love, hope can be found because of it. There will always be suffering but the passage emphasizes that it is not always a bad thing. Suffering is temporary in comparison to the glory that can be gained by knowing God and connecting. There are many ways a person can suffer this disorder is an example of suffering. Verses 24 and 25 are very positive and inspire a sense of hopefulness (Bible Gateway).

References

Bible Gateway passage: Romans 8:18-25 – new international version. (n.d.). Retrieved March 24,

2021, from https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans+8%3A 18-25&version=NIV

Hui, C., & Radbel, J. M. (2017). Diabetes insipidus.

Madrazo-Ibarra, A., & Vaitla, P. (2020). Histology, Nephron. StatPearls [Internet].

Robben, J. H., Knoers, N. V., & Deen, P. M. (2004). Regulation of the vasopressin V2 receptor by vasopressin in polarized renal collecting duct cells. Molecular biology of the cell, 15(12), 5693–5699.

https://doi.org/10.1091/mbc.e04-04-0337

second post

ntroduction

Hypertension is also known as high blood pressure. High blood pressure occurs when blood circulation in the systemic arteries increases higher than normal. When the arterioles narrow, the heart works harder causing the arterial pressure to rise as the peripheral resistance increases (Helen, 2020).The systemic arteries carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to other tissues in the body. Blood pressure is measured in arteries during circulation because the force is higher than in the veins. The measurements of blood pressure are systolic and diastolic. High blood pressure is split into two types: primary and secondary hypertension.

Types of Hypertension

There are several types of systemic hypertension. High blood pressure is split into the two main types: primary and secondary. Primary essential hypertension is the most common type of elevated blood pressure that occurs as you get older with an unknown cause. Secondary Hypertension is the next common type of raised blood pressure with classifiable causes.

Secondary hypertension are about 10% of the cases, which makes 90% of the cases primary hypertension (Hedge & Aeddula, 2020). There are four stages of blood pressure: normal, prehypertension, stage 1 hypertension, and stage 2 hypertension. Stage 2 hypertension is the most serve, which is greater than 160/100 mmHg. The normal blood pressure for each person to person. A minimum range to a maximum range of values are given to monitor if a person blood pressure is too high or too low. Therefore, there is no “normal blood pressure.” Systolic and diastolic blood pressure are used to measure a person’s blood pressure. The systolic pressure value is the top number and the normal range is 90 mmHg to 120 mmHg. The diastolic pressure value is the bottom number and the range is 60 mmHg to 80 mmHg. Although, <140/90 mmHg can be read as normal blood pressure.

Mechanism

If a person maintains a healthy blood pressure, their body will be in a homeostatic state. If homeostasis is disturbed, the blood pressure begin to rise and baroreceptors are stimulated. The vasomotor and cardioacceleratory centers are inhibited, but the cardioinhibitory center is stimulated. This will decreased cardiac output and the blood pressure will be reduced. The primary determinant of aortic pressure are cardiac output, peripheral resistances, and arterial compliances (Nguyen, Tuzun, and Quick, 2016).

Patients that are diagnosed with systemic hypertension have an increased cardiac output or increased total peripheral resistance. Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped from each ventricle per minute. Cardiac output equals the product of stroke volume and heart rate (Seidel & Scholl, 2017). Sympathetic innervation and endocrine effectors influences the vascular resistance which is determined by the vascular diameter (Seidel & Scholl, 2017). Cardiac output multiplied by peripheral resistance gives the product of blood pressure, which is known as Ohm’s law (Seidel & Scholl, 2017).

Receptors monitor blood pressure. These receptors are baroreceptors which are important in short-term blood pressure changes and chemical receptors which are responsible for oxygen in the carotid tissues and aorta (Seidel & Scholl, 2017). During sympathetic activity, the cardiac output and total peripheral resistance increase by ß1 receptors (Seidel & Scholl, 2017). Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors lowers cardiac output and peripheral resistance in parasympathetic activity (Seidel & Scholl, 2017). The molecular basis of high blood pressure remains unclear. Mutations in the Na + -Cl- cotransporter (NCC) or the Na + -K + -2Cl- cotransporter 2 (NKCC2) that re-duce salt reabsorption cause hypotension as found in Gitelman’s disease and type I Barrter’s disease (Berridge, 2012).

Bible Verse

Romans 8:18-22 states, "we know that the whole creation has been groaning as in pains of childbirth right up to the present time." I believe this means although one is suffering this is nothing compared to what God has planned for us. So, stay strong because in the end it is worth it.

References:

1. Berridge, M.J. (2012) Cell Signalling Biology; doi:10.1042/csb0001012

2. Hegde , S., & Aeddula, N. R. (2020). Secondary Hypertension. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing.

3. Helen Taussing (2020). Systemic Hypertension [Online].

4. Nguyen, P. H., Tuzun, E., & Quick, C. M. (2016). Aortic pulse pressure homeostasis emerges from physiological adaptation of systemic arteries to local mechanical stresses. American journal of physiology. Regulatory, integrative and comparative physiology, 311(3), R522–R531.

5. Seidel, E., & Scholl, U. I. (2017). Genetic mechanisms of human hypertension and their implications for blood pressure

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