Identify the patterns of development of Western culture.

This assignment measures your mastery of ULOs 1.3, 1.4, 3.3, 5.5 and CLO 4.

For this journal, you will reflect on your experiences in this course. Discuss the following:

Identify the patterns of development of Western culture.

Argue the themes of greatest significance to the development of early Western culture.

Identify how notable events through 510 B.C.E. influenced the modern world.

Explain significant Western cultural ideas.

Discuss your experience learning throughout this course.

Explain how you would apply the knowledge you have learned in this course to succeed at performing the task in a real-word scenario.

Your journal should be at least two pages in length. If outside sources are used, adhere to APA Style when creating citations and references for this assignment.

Requirements: 2 pages

HIS 1305, Western Civilization I 1 Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VIII Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to: 1. Discuss the development of Western civil practices. 1.4 Argue the themes of greatest significance to the development of early Western culture. 3. Discuss key individuals in Western culture. 3.6 Identify leaders of the scientific revolution and their contributions. 5. Discuss influences that contributed to the development of Western society. 5.5 Identify the patterns of development of Western culture. Required Unit Resources Chapter 13: Reformations and Religious Wars, 1500–1600 Chapter 16: Toward a New Worldview, 1540–1789, pp. 505–512 Unit Lesson During the 16th and 17th centuries, the universe itself was transformed. The unified edifice built from the spiritual, moral, and physical foundations of the cosmos cracked, creating new worlds. Unit VII considered the two views of human life that arose during the Renaissance: • as preparation for the afterlife by avoiding and atoning for sin, and • as valuable in and of itself with potential for achievement of human well-being and happiness. Unit VIII explores the religious, intellectual, and political components of the Protestant Reformation during the period from 1500 to 1650. These include both the Protestant and Catholic Reformations of 1500–1600 and the Copernican Revolution of 1520–1630. The reading for this unit includes all of Chapter 13 and one section of Chapter 16. Why include the new ideas about the universe in Chapter 16? As discussed in previous units, the medieval worldview integrated all aspects of life into one sacred universe and gave every aspect a spiritual meaning. One of the most important lessons in the course is that artifacts cannot be interpreted accurately outside of their historical context. The changes in ideas about the cosmos are an integral part of other developments during this period. To understand the influences and transformation of faith from the beginning to the end of the period, we have to recognize the activity we now call science as a part of culture and politics in the 16th century. The pursuit of profit, power, or purity of belief generated widespread violence during this period of tremendous change. Religious, economic, and political motives continued to be fused in a way that modern students who are used to separation of church and state will have to try to imagine. In 1500, despite growing criticism, there was still one universal western Christian Church. By 1650, Christendom had splintered into many factions and developed stable, distinct denominations. To the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic versions of Christianity were added varieties of Protestant faiths, including Lutheran, Calvinist, Anglican (Church of England), and Anabaptist. Yet, very few states offered toleration or separation of church and state by 1650. Wars triggered by religious differences among rulers—such as the Thirty Years’ War—were also shaped by political and economic competitions as conquest and trade expanded around the globe. Religion became a UNIT VIII STUDY GUIDE Reformations, Revolution, and Religious Warfare: 1500-1630

HIS 1305, Western Civilization I 2 UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title potent motive for both authentic reform and for generating loyalty in civil wars, such as that of the Calvinist and Catholic nobles who murderously vied for the French throne. The new emphasis on the authority of each believer ignited social revolution, too, during the Peasant Wars of the Holy Roman Empire (HRE). Ardent faith led to the call for political reform and, at the same time, also led to the persecution of many accused of heresy, witchcraft, and popery—all versions of religious error believed to be the devil’s work. By 1650, the rash of warfare in Europe began to subside as regions enforced specific religions and accommodated dissenting believers. Yet warfare continued overseas where misery increased with the expansion of the African slave trade. By 1650, the universe itself had shifted from earth- to sun-centered, destroying the harmony of celestial, earthly, and spiritual life that scholasticism had created. The Renaissance emphasis on trade and achievement, industriousness and inquiry, and the use of patronage to gain power generated a new worldview and a new universe. Factors Shaping the Reformations The term reformations sums up the many currents of reform and innovation during this period. We can point to at least three different strands of religious reformation: the Protestant Reformation on the European continent; the unique English Reformation; and the Catholic Church’s own response, known as the Catholic Reformation or Counter-Reformation. Students may have encountered three historical myths caused by oversimplifications of the Reformation: • the Reformation split Christendom, • Luther intended to break from the Church as the first “modern” man, and • the Reformation began in Germany (George, 2017). Instead, the Reformation is best understood as part of the same centuries-long attempt to stabilize belief and produce fidelity or loyalty to one truth. As noted previously, during the centuries prior to the 16th century (1500s), the unity and power of the Church were never complete. From Constantine’s Edict of Milan in 313 that supported Christian worship to the Great Schism between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches in 1054, there was at least one official voice of Christianity. Even after 1054, the Western popes succeeded in enforcing reforms, such as canon law and ex-communication, which helped them to shape the decisions of secular rulers and to govern their clerics. The multiplication of popes during the second Great Schism or Western Schism (1378–1417) badly hurt the prestige of the papacy. How could there be one truth with more than one pope and one Church hierarchy? As noted in Unit VII, this schism halved Western Christianity due to the interference of secular leaders in the choice of popes. The increasing wealth of the Church brought sharp criticism, and innovations to the printing press enabled more people to read the scripture for themselves, raising both the level of piety and the degree of criticism. A flood of pamphlets and flyers spread debate, propaganda, and invective. As kingdoms or independent cities generated their own borders, cultures, and administrations, the higher ranks of the clergy, often Italian, were seen as intruders interfering in states and refusing to share the burdens of taxation. The fees for sacraments and insertion of the Church into political and social life became more and more suspect, driving humanist discussions of the authenticity of certain sacraments and practices. The pope also incurred the ire of powerful leaders for his role in the election of the Holy Roman Emperor and influence in parceling out other significant positions. The “Unexpected” Reformation It is easy when looking backward to see the fracture of Christendom as inevitable or predestined. This assumption can mask the actual motives as events unfolded. The greatest critics of the Church were themselves churchmen charged with maintaining the purity of the faith. Doctor of Theology regularly debated issues, and they were engaged by the pope to help settle matters of doctrine. The Scholastic philosophers had used reason to uphold the teachings of the Church, and this is what St. Thomas Aquinas was doing when Christianizing Aristotelian philosophy.

HIS 1305, Western Civilization I 3 UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title To weigh in on debates on the authoritative teachings, humanists, such as Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536), delved into the scriptures in Hebrew and Greek and studied the writings of the early Church fathers (review Unit IV). Christian humanists throughout Europe, many of whom were priests and monks, frequently engaged in debate on these matters. The first major successful reformer, Martin Luther (1483–1546), was part of this broader community and tradition. Understanding the place of specific people in their communities is key to understanding how the world was re-created in this period. Luther’s First Goal: Protect the Catholic Church from Corruption Initially a lawyer from a family of prosperous Germanic brewers, Luther entered the monastery in fulfillment of a promise made to God during a dangerous storm. Nevertheless, he was not just a simple, pious monk. He was influential even before he publicly criticized the Church because of his position—a Doctor of Theology with oversight over 11 Augustinian monasteries (George, 2017). Luther’s education reflected his life’s work, which was to aid the pope in ensuring correct belief and practice. He was unaware that the behaviors he was criticizing were the exact behaviors engaged in by his archbishop Albert of Brandenburg and Pope Leo X (1475–1521; pope from 1513–1521). While not knowing that his own archbishop had paid the pope for several Church offices or that the pope sold indulgences to cover the costs of the extensive renovations of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, Luther drew up the “95 Theses or Disputation on the Power of Indulgences” (George, 2017). As was the custom to invite debate, he affixed them with wax to the door of Castle Church at Wittenberg on October 31, 1517. He did not intend to break with the Church by this action. In fact, he was shocked at his archbishop’s negative reaction. It is important to realize this in order to understand Luther’s subsequent moderation and conservative social decisions discussed below (George, 2017). Indulgences had existed in the early Church; this was a continuation of a Roman tradition of showing mercy to debtors by forgiving taxes or debts. In the early Church, forgiveness of sin had to be followed by an act of penance or restitution. So even after forgiveness, Christians had a debt to fulfill. When martyrs and others who had received forgiveness died without the opportunity to complete the penance, their debt was forgiven. This was the original meaning of indulgence. By the Middle Ages, in principle, indulgences could release a sinner from time spent atoning after death for bad deeds or having to make some other act of restitution. The idea that one could buy forgiveness of sins was a corruption of the actual meaning and intent of indulgences (Kent, 1910). As early as 1215, Church leadership had itself attempted to prevent the sale of indulgences. In the corrupted version of their use, these ways of atoning for sin could be purchased for money that was used to build a cathedral or to support the payment for a Church office or the war against the Turks. Dominican Friar Tetzel traveled through the HRE with lurid stories of dead loved ones crying out to their living family members to rescue them from punishment through purchase of an indulgence. Luther found himself agreeing, then, with the growing chorus of people charging corruption (George, 2017).

HIS 1305, Western Civilization I 4 UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title The Sale of Indulgences, a woodcut by Hans Holbein the Younger, is one of many illustrations the artist created that criticized the Catholic Church. It juxtaposes the Protestant and Catholic approaches to salvation, with earnest Protestant penitence on the left vs. the Catholic purchase of indulgences in the money-changer’s house that was the gaudy court of Pope Leo on the right. There is evidence that Holbein relied on Luther’s first German version of the Bible, published in 1522, for inspiration (Grossman, 1961). (Holbein, ca. 1529) Ego Sum Papa (I am the Pope) is a 16th century example of anti-clericalism. This is a French woodcut of Pope Alexander VI, father of ruthless Italian prince Cesare Borgia, used by Machiavelli as an example of successful seizure of power (unknown artist in the late 1500s). (Ego sum Papa, ca. 1500) His critique fell on welcoming ears greatly multiplied by the impact of the printing press. Unlike reformer John Hus, who had been executed by the Catholic Inquisition a century before, Luther had strong political support.

HIS 1305, Western Civilization I 5 UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title In northern Germanic lands within the HRE where cities were rapidly expanding through work and trade, people had already become intolerant of churchmen, a sentiment known as anti-clericalism (Ozment, 1981). The wealth and the increasing political influence of Italian Church leadership in the German regions of the empire annoyed townspeople as well as the German princes, who in 1510 refused to give the pope money to fight the Turks. The German princes sided with the cardinals in the conciliar movement, the belief that councils of cardinals—not the pope alone—had authority to determine religious matters. This method of decision-making was similar to the political diets (pronounced “dee-its”) held by the princes as part of their governance of the HRE. Some people also began to resent the multiplication of sacraments by the reforming popes who had intended to insert the Church into significant events and into the life of the believer (Weisner-Hanks et al., 2020; Ozment, 1981). When the pope tried within the year to force Luther to recant, Luther’s own supervisors in the Augustinian order took his side, and his influence spread through the trade routes, the monasteries, and especially wherever there was a printing press. Cities with at least one printing press were more likely to adopt Lutheranism than cities with none (Rubin, 2014). Only about ten percent of the population could read, but the nobility had begun to send their children to humanist schools, particularly in central Europe where the first humanist university was founded in Poland. Propaganda did not require words; often flyers used symbols and pictures of scriptural themes that many Christians recognized, such the caricature of Pope Alexander the VI above and the dueling caricatures below of both Luther and the pope as the beast with seven heads from Christian scripture in the Book of Revelation. A seven-headed Martin Luther reads a leaflet in this 16th century caricature, Flugblatt Gegen Luther (Leaflet Against Luther) (Flugblatt Gegen Luther, ca. 1550)

HIS 1305, Western Civilization I 6 UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title This 16th century caricature depicts a seven-headed papal beast with “kingdom” (Regnum) on the left and “devil” (Diaboli) on the right (The Seven Headed Papal Beast, ca. 1530) These images of seven-headed monsters are examples of the propaganda generated during the Protestant and Catholic Reformations due to the invention of the printing press. Here Luther (left) and the Pope (right) are represented as the seven-headed beast or symbol of false and corrupt prophets described in the Christian scripture The Book of Revelation. Here, the images reflect the battle for the right to interpret the scripture and define true belief. Importantly, disagreement became monstrous and diabolical, and adherents of one faith or another were dehumanized, facilitating violence against each other.

HIS 1305, Western Civilization I 7 UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title Frederick the Wise in Prayer Before the Virgin and Child is a portrait created between 1490 and 1553 by Lucas Cranach the Elder (Lucas Cranach the Elder, ca. 1490) The prince in Luther’s own state, Frederick III of Wittenberg (1463–1525), a lifelong reform-minded Catholic, was critical to the success of the Protestant Reformation because he protected Luther from the grasp of the pope. The pope knew that the election of a new Holy Roman Emperor was approaching, and that Frederick was a likely winner who would not tolerate the pope’s interference. As scholar Mario Biagioli (1993) has noted, once in Rome, a dissenter was doomed. Biagioli notes that unlike western justice today, a charge was never brought with the intention of finding innocence or accepting criticism but with the intention of forcing the charged to recant and receive penance (PBS – Empires, 2004). To appease Frederick, the pope suggested that a delegation from Rome travel to Saxony to question Luther to see if the issue could be resolved. Rumors of bad intent on the part of the delegation led to Luther’s escape before the delegation could arrest him for refusing to admit errors of faith (Ozment, 1981). Luther’s New Theology and Rejection of the Catholic Church At this point, the behavior of the papacy itself became the issue, and what was at first only the intention to stop the practice of indulgences expanded into a complete theological reform. The reason for this is clear—the practice of requiring a fee or other service as atonement for sin was enmeshed in the much broader debate about the role of the Church in the salvation of the individual and as the interpreter of God’s will in human history (known as Providence). The key issue was the interpretation of good works. In Catholic theology, good works was interpreted to mean three things:

HIS 1305, Western Civilization I 8 UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title 1. acts or works required to earn salvation, 2. works performed by believers through the seven sacraments, and 3. works performed by the Church to interpret and guide correct beliefs. The key issue was whether good works, also known as acts, earned salvation. For Catholics, salvation was gained through both grace and a life of good works. For Luther, grace was a gift that alone could bring salvation. The key difference is the function of the good works. In the first scenario, they are part of deserving or earning salvation. In the second, salvation is not deserved but granted so good works are the effects or products of an already saved soul. For Luther, indulgences were wrong because salvation could not be earned so there was no debt, and, therefore, acts were not relevant to the life of a Christian except as the natural outcome of grace. Further, these two ways of seeing the role of good works related not just to indulgences but also to the authority of the Church. Catholic theology expanded the concept of good works to mean not only acts of kindness and self-control but also acts the Church required or encouraged in believers, such as participating in the seven sacraments and making a pilgrimage. The sacraments were seven rites that conferred grace throughout the life of the believer; these occasions ensured that the Church was indispensable at many points in the life of the believer since ordained priests were needed to perform the sacraments. • Baptism: Originally, this was an induction into the Church upon the conversion of an adult that evolved into a ritual of welcoming infants into the faith. • Eucharist: This is the blessing of bread and wine as the scriptures indicate that Christ did on the evening of his arrest during what is known as the Last Supper, which for Catholics makes Christ present in the bread and wine. The rationale for this is complex and has to do with Aristotle’s Four Causes (material, efficient, formal, and final) explained in Unit IV. • Confirmation: Originally, this was a rite that followed closely upon baptism that evolved into the confirmation or commitment to faith. • Marriage: This was instituted as a sacrament in the 12th century as part of the papal reforms. • Penance (reconciliation): This involves the confession and forgiveness of sins. • Extreme Unction (sacrament of the sick): This sacrament is conferred upon contraction of a critical illness or prior to death. • Holy orders: This is ordination (“Medieval Sourcebook,” n.d.). Good works also meant the works of the Church through history, building understanding and traditions of the scripture as history evolved. Thus, good works also embraced the synods or councils that made decisions about faith. Scripture was illuminated through the ongoing relationship of the Church to God through time. The debate over good works or acts, then, became a debate over the centuries-long and increasing role of the Church as the key intermediary in the relationship between humanity and God. Upon realizing that abuses of indulgences would not be rejected, Luther also realized that the pope could not have the legitimate authority to act as intermediary between God and humankind. According to George (2017), this resulted in the principles of faith below that Luther published in several key pamphlets and books in the German language, including On the Freedom of a Christian (1520). • Salvation is gained through the gift of God’s grace alone and not earned by good works. • There are not seven but two sacraments communicated in scripture, only baptism and the Eucharist (blessing of bread and wine). However, some Lutheran denominations also see the confession of sin as a sacrament and ordination was almost also accepted. • The Eucharist contains the presence of Christ because Christ and God are present in the world. • There is a priesthood of all believers, meaning that the ordained ministers are not intermediaries between the believer and God and that non-religious life and communities were as worthwhile as religious endeavors and communities. This led to a re-evaluation of secular life, marriage over celibacy, and some support for the revaluation of women, although their freedom and authority was increasingly restricted to Bible study and education of children (Weisner-Hanks et al., 2020).

HIS 1305, Western Civilization I 9 UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title There were additional reform movements. • Calvinism: This is the foundation of Presbyterianism and Baptist faiths. John Calvin, born a Frenchman, argued that the anxiety caused by the fear of failing to merit salvation undermined the ability to live a Christian life. His solution was the Doctrine of Predestination, the idea that people were pre-selected by God for salvation (Weisner-Hanks et al., 2020). • Zwinglism: Sharing Luther’s humanist education, including reading the works of Catholic reformer Erasmus, Catholic priest Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) became leader of the Swiss Reformation. He saw the Eucharist as purely a ritual of remembrance and made the Bible the standard for determining the right faith. He rejected the idea instituted by St. Augustine that humans were born with original sin, an idea that both Calvin and Luther retained (Weisner-Hanks et al., 2020). • Anabaptism: This is a radical rejection of all institutions seeking to control individual belief, including governments and even other Protestant denominations, leading to the almost universal persecution of Anabaptists. It insists on adult baptism (Stayer, 1991). • Anglicanism: Also known as the Church of England with the English monarch and not the pope as head, this denomination was created by Henry VIII’s rejection of the pope’s authority (see below). At first, very similar to Catholicism, Anglicanism shifted to more emphasis on scripture through the influence of Henry’s ministers and Queen Elizabeth I. This is the foundation of the Episcopal Church in the United States (Weisner-Hanks et al., 2020). • The Catholic Reformation: Included here as a reminder that there was a broad movement toward the reform, the Catholic Reformation is seen by most historians as part of a longer movement to stop corruption that predated the Protestant Reformation (Ozment, 1981). The series of meetings known as the Council of Trent (1545–63) affirmed the use of both scripture and Church tradition, as well as faith and works. The council explained further the scriptural foundations of the seven sacraments, took measures to avoid corruption, and made the education of clerics more extensive and rigorous. To ensure correct belief, the Inquisition gained even more power and had the authority to approve or prevent publication of ideas. Early 17th century, German School painting depicting an imaginary meeting of the heroes of the Protestant Reformation: Heinrich Bullinger, Girolamo Zanchi, John Knox, Huldrych Zwingli, Pietro Martire Vermigli, Martin Bucer, Jerome of Prague, William Perkins, Jan Hus, Philip Melanchthon, Martin Luther, Jean Calvin, Theodore Beza, and John Wycliffe; at the bottom are a devil, pope, cardinal, and monk who cannot extinguish the light of truth written by these men, no matter how much air they blow on the flame. In the lower right, Wycliffe, who translated the New Testament into English, attempts to subdue them with Scripture. (Anonymous, n.d.)

HIS 1305, Western Civilization I 10 UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title Political Dimensions of Reformation The role of Frederick’s political aims in protecting Luther has been noted. Political ideas also accompanied new ideas about the nature of salvation. Howard (2005) argues that the transfer of authority from the centralized Catholic Church hierarchy to each individual reader of scripture created both fundamentalism (necessity of one unified, true reading) and pluralism (embrace of multiple or individual personal interpretation) that churches and states have continued to grapple with in subsequent centuries. Reformers’ theological ideas prompted political ideas in support of obedience to the state, or reformation of the state, or freedom from the state. Believing in rule by divine right (ordained by God), some Protestants—including Luther and Henry VIII—affirmed the need to obey civil rulers, yet others came closer to articulating a right of rebellion that helped shape later constitutional governments. The Peasant Wars offer an early example of this tension between the proposed freedom of each believer to interpret the Bible and the idea that nevertheless, there could be errors in reading the Bible. Compared to other reformers, Luther’s social ideas were conservative, meaning that he did not seek to disrupt the social hierarchy or to remake society. Lutheranism was compatible with secular governments but did not seek to use them to order civic life in a particular way to bring salvation. He rejected the electrifying rationales of some of the Anabaptist preachers claiming the serfs were not required by God to serve their earthly lords since this was a form of idolatry—the worship of men instead of direct worship of God. Led by Thomas Müntzer, the peasants of the German lands in the Holy Roman Empire rose up in revolt in 1524–1525, a war that was brutally crushed, leaving 100,000 peasants dead. Luther did not support the peasants despite encouraging individual reading of the Bible and belief in the priesthood of all believers (Stayer, 1991). Anabaptists renounced civil society as corrupt and sought to escape it, some as Puritans in the New World. Calvin created a society and government based on his principles of faith; after a false start and initial ejection from Geneva, he did successfully merge church and state in Geneva. Zwingli also sought to create a Swiss state governed by Christian morality, with government as an aid in shaping belief and behavior. For Zwingli, church and state were merged into one, with God as the governor. Calvin taught that all earthly leaders should be followed but not when they disobeyed God’s laws. John Knox promoted this idea in Scotland, as did the Puritans in England. An unjust ruler had no claim to power (Macleod, 2009). While this sounds familiar to students living in 21st century democracies, the goal was not religious freedom but theocracy—a religious realm ordained by God. The famous 18th century Enlightenment philosophies and revolutions, including the American Revolution, take this idea a further step toward religious tolerance and separation of church and state, with rights and freedoms God built into the universe. The English Reformation: A Unique Case The political causes and outcomes of the Reformation in England reveal it to be distinct from the Protestant Reformation in the rest of Europe. Independent of much of the critique that generated the above reforms, Henry VIII (1491–1547) rejected the authority of the pope and made himself the head of the Church of England. Historians like Newcombe (1995) see the resulting Church as initially essentially Catholic until subsequent changes were introduced through the influence of Thomas Cromwell and Elizabeth I. The English Reformation began primarily with the desire of a faithful Catholic King Henry VIII to gain the pope’s permission to marry again. According to one simplified version, Henry was a selfish, arrogant man who split the Church to satisfy his own lust and greed. In this view, men like Thomas Cromwell, influenced by Reformation ideas on the European continent, were able to steer him away from obedience to the Church. In reality, Henry was an intelligent, well-educated, humanist scholar and writer, and a Renaissance man whose tracts defending the seven sacraments caused the pope to name him “Defender of the Faith.” Aware of the centuries of warfare prior to his father’s reign, Henry faced a political dilemma. How could he avoid reigniting another war among competing noble families for the throne if he had no male heir to continue the line of the Tudor kings? The question was part of his broader quest to consolidate the power of the monarchy. His older brother, Arthur, was engaged or betrothed as a child to Catherine of Aragon, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain and aunt to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who controlled Germany, Spain, and France. This was a very advantageous marriage designed both to protect the Tudor kings from internal

HIS 1305, Western Civilization I 11 UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title threats (ambitious nobles) and external threats (from the emperor himself). After his brother’s early death%

Collepals.com Plagiarism Free Papers

Are you looking for custom essay writing service or even dissertation writing services? Just request for our write my paper service, and we'll match you with the best essay writer in your subject! With an exceptional team of professional academic experts in a wide range of subjects, we can guarantee you an unrivaled quality of custom-written papers.

Get ZERO PLAGIARISM, HUMAN WRITTEN ESSAYS

Why Hire Collepals.com writers to do your paper?

Quality- We are experienced and have access to ample research materials.

We write plagiarism Free Content

Confidential- We never share or sell your personal information to third parties.

Support-Chat with us today! We are always waiting to answer all your questions.