The terms instructional practice and instructional strategy incorporate a wide range of techniques educators use to support student learning. Consider adding ideas to the strategi

to using programs that have evidence, measuring the extent to which a program was imple- mented as designed, whether the entire program was implemented, staff training, level of student engagement, and the appropriate use of adaptations (Durlak, 2015). Understanding these issues is critical to having SEL programming lead to the outcomes you were hoping for (Oberle et al., 2016). We encourage you to use Worksheets 4.1 and 4.2 as you apply this chapter’s content to your site. This chapter broadly includes:

• Methods for creating a setting conducive to SEL through climate, relationships, and organized classroom space and behavior management strategies.

• Procedures and strategies to ensure high- quality SEL classroom implementation.

CREATING CLASSROOMS CONDUCIVE TO SEL IMPLEMENTATION

Classrooms are a place where the climate is paramount to learning (Matsumura, Slater, & Crosson, 2008). This means the extent to which students feel connected, safe, and sup- ported. For students to develop academic and social– emotional competence, both instruc- tional rigor and emotional support in teaching and learning are key (Matsumura et al., 2008). Implementing an SEL program is one way to positively influence classroom climate, because at the core of the material is curiosity and exploration of emotions and social inter- actions as valid and something to be learned (e.g., Hagelskamp et al., 2013). There are spe- cific strategies known to contribute to positive classroom climate in general that can also fit into a larger SEL picture (Doll, Brehm, & Zucker, 2014; O’Conner et al., 2017). In this sec- tion, we review the following two areas: (1) cultivating positive relationships with students, student peers, and families; and (2) applying organizational strategies to promote order, safety, connection, and predictability in classroom spaces and with student behavior.

Supportive Classrooms through Relationships and Engagement

Not only do relationships shape students’ overall development (Jones & Bouffard, 2012; Rudasill, Reio, Stipanovic, & Taylor, 2010), but they can also influence classroom climate (Doll et al., 2014). To better understand how supportive classrooms can be achieved to effec- tively support SEL implementation, let us review the process by which relationships— and a related term, attachment—can be developed. Students can be in supportive and less than supportive relationships with adults, peers, and other youth. All parties engage in behaviors that can promote (or undermine) relationships, leading to differing degrees in the quality of attachment (Cassidy, 2016).

Attachment is typically viewed within a framework of an adult reliably responding to a child’s need (thereby creating a “safe haven”) and providing a “secure base” from which a child can explore his or her environment, a task that is necessary to learn and grow (Bowlby, 2005; Hoffman, Cooper, & Powell, 2017). A process called attunement occurs when an adult pays attention to a child’s emotional, behavioral, and physical signals, makes guesses about what is needed, and provides support (see discussion in Gus, Rose, & Gilbert, 2015). For example, a parent or teacher might respond to a student’s emotional experience via eye con-

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tact, use a warm and caring tone of voice, identify the emotion that a student is experienc- ing, and validate the emotional experience through empathic statements (e.g., “You sound so very disappointed and sad. I wonder if that is because you felt left out during recess, and because you really wanted to play with Marco”). Over the course of a day, students give adults many opportunities to respond to invitations for connection. Some invitations are obvious, many less so. Over time, the relationship between adult and child provides a mechanism by which a child can learn how to make sense of his or her internal and external worlds (e.g., “I understand that I probably feel sad, disappointed, and angry when I am not invited to play”) and develop the capacity to regulate emotions and behaviors (Bretherton, 1992).

Teacher–Student Relationships

Teacher– student relationships play a critical role in promoting resilience, classroom cli- mate (Doll et al., 2014), and students’ school success, often past high school (Bergin & Ber- gin, 2009; Hamre & Pianta, 2001). Relationship qualities such as teacher responsiveness, warmth, and comfort giving, a mutual sense of trust and a perception of fairness and respect, reliability, many positive interactions and high expectations, and low conflict are known to impact academic performance, school behaviors (e.g., responsible actions), and social and emotional competencies (Bergin & Bergin, 2009; Doll et al., 2014; O’Connor et al., 2017; Wentzel, 2002). When teachers show emotional support to students who are already expe- riencing emotional and behavioral difficulty, these students are better able to engage in positive relationships with their teachers, thereby improving their chances of school success (Buyse, Verschueren, Doumen, Van Damme, & Maes, 2008).

Peer Relationships

It should not be surprising that peer-to-peer relationships are important to students’ overall development and a positive classroom climate (Doll et al., 2014). When students feel a sense of belonging in all aspects of work and recreation, help others, and are assisted by their peers, they tend to perform better and classrooms are healthier places (Doll et al., 2014). Some SEL programs specifically address peer relationships as part of lessons or daily rou- tines (e.g., learning conflict management, perspective taking, listening skills). In a highly social environment such as school, there are many opportunities to practice these skills during the day.

School–Home–Community Relationships

The concept of relationship is inherent in commonly used terms such as involvement, col- laboration, engagement, and partnerships. In terms of school– home relationships, we know that family involvement in students’ education is vital and has been positively associated with school climate (Cohen, McCabe, Michelli, & Pickeral, 2009), learning (Cappella, Fra- zier, Atkins, Schoenwald, & Glisson, 2008), behavior (Buerkle, Whitehouse, & Christenson, 2009), and high school completion (Barnard, 2004). The concept of “school– family partner- ships” goes further, conceptualizing a collaborative relationship that is student focused, par-

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ticipants are equally valued for their expertise, responsibilities are shared, communication is fluid, and interventions can occur in multiple settings and not exclusively in the classroom (Garbacz et al., 2015; see Chapters 5 and 8 for an expanded discussion). In crafting their SEL state standards, the Ohio Department of Education (2019) recently highlighted the importance of facilitating partnerships by stating:

Parents and families are critical in the development of social- emotional skills and compe- tencies in young children as they grow. These standards were created with that very much in mind, as parents and family members are their children’s first and most significant teachers. It is through building a strong partnership between families and schools, educa- tors and communities that our children are supported to be lifelong learners who develop into adults who make significant contributions to the world. (p. 3)

Building relationships with families and community partners depends on us getting to know the needs, interests, preferences, values, and skills of many people and organiza- tions. We must also understand the variety of barriers that may contribute to meaningful partnerships: taking time off from work, transportation, childcare, feeling uncomfortable in schools, memories of negative experiences (Herman, Reinke, Frey, & Shepard, 2014), cul- tural differences in parents roles in education (Gonzales & Gabel, 2017), workloads of com- munity partners, and poor understanding of professional roles and responsibilities (Weist et al., 2012). When we do not proactively reflect upon and challenge our own knowledge and feelings about the people we need to partner with, we risk mistakenly making sweep- ing assumptions that can potentially lead to misunderstandings and exclusionary practices. The Ohio Department of Education (2019) prioritized this sentiment by stating: “Authentic, positive relationships with students and families only can occur when educators reflect on their positionality, power and privilege and develop cultural awareness and competency (Gallego & Cole, 2001; Artiles, 2003; Kozleski & Artiles, 2012)” (p. 3).

The Intersection of Relationships, Climate, and SEL

Given the considerable value of paying attention to relationships in education, we offer the following observations and summary on how relationships, climate, and SEL are inexpli- cately interconnected:

1. Students develop socially and emotionally in the context of relationships (Albright & Weissberg, 2010; Cassidy, 2016). Relationships need to be nurtured with evidence- based and thoughtful implementation practices to improve students’ skills and decrease risk (Wil- liford & Wolcott, 2015).

2. Relationships and engagement are intertwined. Because “engagement is a relational process” (Pianta, Hamre, & Allen, 2012, p. 366), attending to relationships is critical to sup- porting students in learning the skills they will need to be successful (Pianta et al., 2012) and engaging partners.

3. A positive classroom climate can create a setting for SEL concepts to be better received and practiced (Thapa, Cohen, Higgins- D’Alessandro, & Guffey, 2012). As Oberle and colleagues (2016) stated, “Such contexts encourage students to explore new activities,

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behaviours, skills and strategies in a safe setting that allows one to make mistakes, adjust, and learn with practice and example” (p. 283). This statement mirrors what we discussed previously— that the school milieu may serve as a safe haven and secure base for students to receive support during times of need and typical stages of exploration.

4. Some SEL programs include frameworks and strategies to promote relationships and partnerships in the classroom (teacher– student) and outside the classroom (student– family; teacher– family; classroom/school– community) (Albright & Weissberg, 2010).

5. Educators have many opportunities to integrate relationship and SEL strategies over the course of their day with students. Consider this scenario: a student is very upset about a recent disciplinary action. The school psychologist listens with body language that con- veys attention, offers a few brief empathic statements, and does not lecture. She helps the student identify emotions, suggests a relaxation strategy, and facilitates a problem- solving process. The psychologist engages with the student in a way that conveys high expectations and confidence in the student to cope with a difficult experience. The psychologist shares these strategies with the parent and offers guidance on using them at home to support the parent– child relationship.

6. Experiencing a variety of emotions in the context of our work and in relationship to others is a normal experience.

Despite opportunities to cultivate relationships, barriers abound, such as interper- sonal irritations and limitations in an adult’s or student’s skills (Graziano, Reavis, Keane, & Calkins, 2007). For example, when students display behaviors that we find unpleasant (e.g., poor communication skills, screaming, refusal), our tendency to provide consistently warm and encouraging responses decreases (Coie & Koeppl, 1990). Over time, we may retract warmth, encouragement, and connection strategies, which can negatively affect the relationship (Pianta & Stuhlman, 2004). Likewise, our behavior can trigger students. We all have social– emotional limitations, depending on context and our own skill repertoire. Can- did recognition of and compassionate attention to these issues can be a first positive step.

Steps to Consider

Drawing upon the literature that highlights relationships, supportive classroom climate, and SEL, we offer the following suggestions to facilitate positive relationships:

1. Review SEL materials to determine whether specific strategies that facilitate key relationships and/or classroom climate are included. Strategies may be included as part of lesson instruction or may be suggested as one means to facilitate climate. You may need to review the materials carefully and/or talk with program developers.

2. Include partnerships and engagement as part of your overall SEL framework and implementation plan as a means to building relationships. Activities may include surveys and focus groups to obtain information, including parents and community partners on the SEL team, and providing interactive workshops. See Chapter 8 for further discussion.

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3. Use strategies known to be effective in cultivating positive teacher– student relation- ships (see Table 4.1 for examples; see comprehensive recommendations in: Bergin & Bergin, 2009; Doll, Spies, LeClair, Kurien, & Foley, 2010; Hamre & Pianta, 2001). Often, such strategies are implemented in the company of other students (e.g., classroom, cafeteria, bus, after- school activities), thereby creating myriad opportunities to model how relationships are built in easy and challenging situations (Nickolite & Doll, 2008).

4. To cultivate home– school relationships, use strategies such as personal communica- tion with parents (phone calls, notes), inviting parents to observe in the classroom, making information available on how relationships are cultivated at school and at home, involving parents in planning and decision- making responsibilities that are part of running a class- room, actively seeking parents’ perspectives and opinions, and keeping parents informed of the day-to-day happenings in a classroom (Doll et al., 2014, pp. 30–31). Activities such as newsletters and parent workshops can help parents understand specific SEL content and translate this information to the home (Patrikakou & Weissberg, 2007). I (B. G.) have per- sonally found receiving such information from my child’s school to be very helpful as a way to further connect with my child at home through school- based activities. It is vitally impor- tant to see and seek families as partners. Engaging in hierarchical relationships, that leave parents feeling inferior or not valued, does not lend itself to collaboration and reciprocity.

5. Include teacher– student– family– community relationships as part of an assessment plan (see Chapter 7). We want to know how this essential aspect of SEL implementation is faring for all.

6. Attend to your emotional experiences and seek education and support. In Chapter 9, we explore the importance of educator social and emotional competence as essential to SEL instruction and classroom climate. Finding support through collaboration, professional learning communities, and reflective processes can help us as we navigate SEL.

You have probably heard many stories that are something like this: “Ms. Sun really stood by me. She cared. She had high expectations, but when I needed help, she really understood where I was coming from and supported me. I think that’s why I got to where I am today.” There is much evidence to support a focus on relationships. We believe it is wise to prioritize active and strategic consideration of cultivating relationships as an important part of SEL implementation. Opportunities abound for attending to our relationships, espe- cially for those students who otherwise may not have access to a responsive relationship.

Classroom Organizational Practices

Classroom Space

Classroom space and the way it is organized can be more or less conducive to effective instruction, student behavior, and feelings of safety (Thapa et al., 2012). To organize space for SEL implementation, consider allowing room for different types of SEL activities (e.g., large and small group role play and practice) and have a variety of materials available to encourage engagement and group or independent practice (see summary in O’Conner et

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TABLE 4.1. Strategies Educators Can Apply to Cultivate Teacher–Student Relationships

Content area Examples Sample phrasing

Warm and caring demeanor and actions

• Greet students by name. • Be attentive during time spent

with students. • Ask about students’ lives

outside of school (e.g., interests, family, challenges).

• Offer praise for effort at a 5:1 ratio.

• “Good morning Bao. Hey, I noticed you bring a basketball to school most days. Do you play before or after school?”

• “Maya, how is your grandmother doing? I haven’t seen her at school lately.”

• “You put a lot of time into that project. I can tell because of the details you included and the attention to your handwriting.”

Facilitates and promotes choices and independence

• Ask for student preferences. • Provide reassurance that

support is available, yet encourage students to take some risks in learning and practice.

• “Carmen, would you rather write about a person who is living now or a historical figure who lived long ago for the LA assignment?”

• “Marcus, give the math assignment a try for the next 10 minutes and take some guesses if you are not sure. I’ll check in with you then.”

Actions are fair and responsible

• Interactions with and expectations for students demonstrate consideration and equity.

• Follow through on our commitments to students.

“Lan, I understand you prefer to lead the group and Asma, I understand you prefer to take directions. I’d like you both to switch roles for this assignment. I know this will feel different; I will be available to coach you when you have questions.”

Manages own emotions and behaviors

• Educator practices self-care. • Educator is aware of personal

biases and triggers and practices managing responses.

[Educator says to self]: “I think I might be reflecting some racial biases in my attitudes toward some students. It’s really valuable for my students and me that I practice awareness and talk about this with a trusted colleague.”

Demonstrates truthfulness

• Demonstrates honesty, appropriate humility, and clear communication skills.

• Resolves misunderstandings. • Models respectful listening to

others’ perspectives and shares own perspective respectfully.

• “Class, I made a mistake when I wrote #4 on the test. It should read . . . ”

• “What I hear you saying is that you are irritated that I marked some of your answers as incorrect. Is that right? Let’s take a look.”

Humor is age and contextually appropriate

• Inappropriate humor, sarcasm, and language avoided.

• Educator can share in everyday experiences with students.

“Did you notice how interested and happy the students seemed at the assembly? I felt that way too. It feels good to have some time to have fun.”

Note. Data from Bergin and Bergin (2009); Doll, Spies, LeClair, Kurien, and Foley (2010); and Hamre and Pianta (2001).

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al., 2017). Because space organization can impact students’ behavior, “minimizing crowd- ing and distraction” is important (Simsonsen, Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers, & Sugai, 2008, p. 358). Some programs may also have specific suggestions, such as making sure everyone is able to see the instructor and materia

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