After reviewing the required readings by Shannon (2011), Galvan (2009), Pan (2008), and considering the topic that you posted in our second discussion board, please respond to each of the f
After reviewing the required readings by Shannon (2011), Galvan (2009), Pan (2008), and considering the topic that you posted in our second discussion board, please respond to each of the following questions.
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http://www.gram.edu/library/electronicresources.php
A GUIDE TO ACADEMIC AND SCHOLARLY WRITING
by
Sandra L. Shannon, PhD
Copyright © 2011 Baldwin Book Publishing
All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Original material herein may not be reproduced, distributed, or stored in any form without the permission of the copyright holder, except as specified in the U.S. Copyright Act of 1976.
Published by Baldwin Book Publishing, Oveido, FL
ISBN 978-1-61817-004-0 (pdf) ISBN 978-1-61817-005-7 (mobi) ISBN 978-1-61817-006-4 (epub)
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Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1
Chapter 2: The Two Types of Writing ……………………………………………………………………………….. 2 The Forms of Academic and Scholarly Writing ……………………………………………………….. 2 Language: Levels of Formality ………………………………………………………………………………. 3
Chapter 3: Structure: Planning the Paper ……………………………………………………………………………. 4 Topic Selection ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 4 Research ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4 Organization ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4 Basic Structure of Academic Writing ……………………………………………………………………… 4
Thesis Statement ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 5 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 6 Background Information …………………………………………………………………………….. 7 Points of Discussion …………………………………………………………………………………… 7 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 8
Chapter 4: Revision…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 9
Chapter 5: Coherence …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 11 Organizational Structure ……………………………………………………………………………………… 11 Paragraph Unity …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 11 Sentence Cohesion ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 12
Transition Words and Phrases …………………………………………………………………… 12 Parallelism (Parallel Construction) …………………………………………………………….. 12 Repetition ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 13 Enumeration ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 14 Introductory Words or Phrases ………………………………………………………………….. 14 Letters or Numbers ………………………………………………………………………………….. 14
Common Problems with Cohesion ……………………………………………………………………….. 14 Tense ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 14 Tone ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 14 Voice ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 15 Person …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 15 Number ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 15
Chapter 6: Precision and Clarity in Language …………………………………………………………………… 17 Biased Language ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 17
Gender Bias …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 17 Other Forms of Bias …………………………………………………………………………………. 17
Slang and Shortened Word Forms ………………………………………………………………………… 18 Coined Words and Expressions ……………………………………………………………………………. 18 Imprecise Words ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 18 Wordiness …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 20 Word Choices in Discussing Results …………………………………………………………………….. 20
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Chapter 7: Quotations ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 21 Accuracy …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 21 Introduction and Discussion ………………………………………………………………………………… 21 Grammatical Context ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 21 Shortened Quotations ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 22
Shortening ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 22 Using Ellipses …………………………………………………………………………………………. 22
Block or Indented Quotations ………………………………………………………………………………. 23 Emphasis …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 23 Citation of Sources ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 23
Chapter 8: Editing …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 24 Conventions of Writing……………………………………………………………………………………….. 24 Spelling …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 24 Hyphenation ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 25 Abbreviations and Acronyms ………………………………………………………………………………. 25 Apostrophes ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 26
Possession ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 26 Omission ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 27
Chapter 9: Sentence Sense ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 28 Complete Sentences ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 28
Fragments ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 28 Run-On Sentences ……………………………………………………………………………………. 29
Voice ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 29 Subject–Verb Agreement …………………………………………………………………………………….. 30 Misplaced Modifiers, Dangling Modifiers, and Split Infinitives ……………………………….. 32 Faulty Parallelism ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 32
Chapter 10: Punctuation …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 34 Commas ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 34
Separating Items in a Series ………………………………………………………………………. 34 Connecting Independent Clauses ……………………………………………………………….. 34 Setting Off Introductory Phrases and Clauses ……………………………………………… 35 Setting Off Introductory Words …………………………………………………………………. 35 Setting Off Nonrestrictive Phrases and Clauses …………………………………………… 35 Setting Off Nonrestrictive Appositives ……………………………………………………….. 36 Setting Off Contrasting Elements ………………………………………………………………. 36 Setting Off the Year in Exact Dates ……………………………………………………………. 36 Setting Off Items in an Address …………………………………………………………………. 36
Semicolons ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 37 Independent Clauses ………………………………………………………………………………… 37 Items in a Series ………………………………………………………………………………………. 37
Colons ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 38 With Explications or Amplifications ………………………………………………………….. 38 With Lists ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 38 With Quotations ………………………………………………………………………………………. 38
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With Time ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 39 With Scriptural References ……………………………………………………………………….. 39
End Punctuation …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 39 Dashes and Parentheses ………………………………………………………………………………………. 39
Dashes ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 40 Parentheses ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 40
Brackets…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 40 Quotation Marks ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 41
Direct Quotations …………………………………………………………………………………….. 41 Titles of Minor Works ……………………………………………………………………………… 41 Translations of Foreign Words and Phrases ………………………………………………… 41 Coined Words and Words Used in Unusual Ways ……………………………………….. 42 Punctuation with Quotation Marks …………………………………………………………….. 42 Double or Single Quotation Marks …………………………………………………………….. 43
Ellipsis………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 43
Chapter 11: Capitalization ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 44 When to Capitalize ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 44 When Not to Capitalize ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 46
Chapter 12: Formatting ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 47
Chapter 13: Plagiarism and Citation ………………………………………………………………………………… 48 Citing Sources ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 48 Using Endnotes and Footnotes……………………………………………………………………………… 48
Chapter 14: Final Words ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 49
References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 50
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Effective writing skills are essential not only for attaining professional credentials but also for advancing in one’s career. Although sometimes treated synonymously, academic and scholarly writing do have some variations in their purposes and characteristics. Understanding the distinctions between academic and scholarly writing and employing them appropriately may be the difference between a stellar professional career and one of continual angst resulting from the publish-or-perish paradigm.
The purpose of this guide is twofold:
• to aid graduate students in understanding the distinctions between academic and scholarly writing and
• to provide professionals with a resource for maintaining and improving their skills in crafting scholarly discourse.
To accomplish these objectives, information concerning both academic and scholarly writing is presented. Specific problems graduate students and professionals may encounter in crafting publishable works are also identified and explained. The tips and techniques presented have been gleaned from numerous sources and represent the most common problems and pitfalls in producing well-written papers, articles, monographs, and books.
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Chapter 2: The Two Types of Writing
Academic and scholarly writing bear striking resemblances to each other. However, subtle differences exist between the two. Where academic writing may be defined broadly as any writing completed to fulfill university or college requirements, scholarly writing is produced to inform a specialized audience of other scholars in a particular field. Scholarly writing is crafted by one professional for other professionals (“Definition of Academic Writing,” 2011). Graduate students may wish to think of scholarly writing as a subset of academic writing.
The purpose of academic writing is to present information about a specific subject precisely and objectively (Nordquist, 2011). Academic writing in college and graduate school is usually geared toward students demonstrating their mastery of content and the analytical and writing processes requisite for entry into their professions. Generally, authors generate either expository or argumentative prose to complete the requirements.
The purpose of scholarly writing is the advancement of knowledge within a specific field. More than a demonstration of the author’s expertise, scholarly writing is produced to add to the body of knowledge, extending, challenging, or expanding what is known or believed within the field. Thus, while all scholarly writing is academic writing, not all academic writing is scholarly writing.
The Forms of Academic and Scholarly Writing
The forms of writing authors may produce are varied. In general, academic writing is found in essays, course papers, research papers, book reports, translations, theses, dissertations, books, articles, technical reports, critiques, and abstracts. Scholarly writing is limited to scholarly books, treatises, technical reports, legal documents, journal articles, and monographs. However, according to Stanton (2008), the accepted forms for scholarly writing are expanding. Although monograph and journal articles are the preferred forms of scholarly writing—for some, the only appropriate forms—other forms, such as collections of articles or essays, translations of primary texts, trade books, articles for more general audiences, essays, critical reviews, trade publications, and even textbooks, have begun to be recognized as legitimate vehicles for authors to demonstrate their content knowledge and to contribute to the body of knowledge within their specific fields.
Although the forms of scholarly and academic writing are converging, in part due to the advances in digital publishing, the purpose and intended audience of scholastic writing continue to demark the subtle differences between the two types (Stanton, 2008). Graduate students, doctoral candidates, and individuals in the beginning stages of their professional careers may benefit from choosing to present their views in more traditional formats. As in most arenas, one must follow the rules until one achieves a certain level of acceptance and authority. At that point, if one breaks the rules, others consider it creativity and genius rather than immaturity, naïveté, or ignorance.
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Language: Levels of Formality
Graduate students and professionals must be aware of the level of formality required in the works they produce. Authors employ one of three basic levels of language: formal, semiformal, or informal (Driscoll & Brizee, 2011). The level for any work should be based on the target audience and the purpose of the work.
Informal language is rarely used in academic or scholarly writing. This level is more conversational in style, often does not follow conventional rules of grammar and mechanics, and may include the use of slang and colloquialisms. Personal letters, conversations, social networking entries, and dialogue in popular forms of literature are usually written in informal English.
In academic writing, authors may use either semiformal or formal language. The choice should be based on audience and purpose. Authors use semiformal language in business letters to individuals well known to them, in professional writing intended for a general audience such as trade publications, and in personal essays. Conventional rules of grammar and mechanics apply; however, the tone is more personal. Authors refer to themselves in the first person (i.e., I, we) and to their readers in second person (i.e., you). Judicious use of contractions, shorter sentences, and more reader-friendly vocabulary mark this level.
Formal language is generally used in academic and scholarly writing. Conventional rules of grammar and mechanics apply; however, the tone is more serious. Authors use third person in referring to themselves and to their readers. Contractions are not used. Sentences may be more complex in structure. Vocabulary is more formal and precise. Abbreviations and acronyms are used judiciously. Because the audience is often other people in the same profession, authors may use more technical terms. People within the profession know and understand these terms and expect them to be used. However, if the audience is more general, including people not familiar with the vocabulary of the profession, the use of technical terms should be kept to a minimum. Authors should also consider defining the technical terms that are used.
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Chapter 3: Structure: Planning the Paper
Structuring a paper or an article is not a one-time event but an ongoing process. It is not complete until the final draft is ready for submission. Planning includes topic selection, research, and basic organization and structure.
Topic Selection
In graduate classes, students may have the general topics of their papers selected for them. Within those generalities, however, each student must choose a specific area of focus. Professionals may select from the topics of interest noted in the journals within their fields as the starting points for articles. Authors may also engage in brainstorming, free writing, and mind mapping to generate potential topics. Another option is to choose to transform one’s dissertation or course papers into scholarly articles for submission to those journals.
Research
After choosing the general topic, authors must engage in research to narrow the topic and gather additional information for support material. The intricacies of research are beyond the scope of this paper. However, authors should conduct a thorough literature review as a minimum. Doing so will allow them to see what others have written on the topic and to determine the gaps in the literature.
Research should also be ongoing, done intermittently throughout the writing process. As authors craft their thesis statements and develop their points of discussion, they may need additional material to flesh out their works. Authors should also keep abreast of the most recent publications concerning their topics to ensure their articles are timely.
Organization
Authors may use either informal or formal techniques to organize their material into a cohesive whole. Once the thesis statement is developed (see next section), the author may use the informal techniques of brainstorming, free writing, or mind mapping to identify primary and secondary points of discussion and evidentiary support. Authors may also generate lists or questions to guide the organization of their material.
A more formal approach is the classic outline. One of the benefits of an outline is its parallel structure (i.e., if there is an A, there must be a B). The outline should contain the main ideas, the key points under those ideas, and the specific details of those key points. With well-developed outlines, authors can see insufficiencies in information immediately and adjust accordingly.
Basic Structure of Academic Writing
Academic writing is usually expository or argumentative and is structured similarly to the five- paragraph theme learned in high school: introduction, body, and conclusion. At the college or graduate level, authors use a more refined version of this structure:
• introduction (including thesis statement),
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• background, • points of discussion, and • conclusion.
In argumentative writing, authors may refine the structure further:
• introduction, • background, • evidentiary support, • counter arguments, and • conclusion.
Thesis Statement
The thesis statement is the controlling idea of the paper. More than a topic, which may be only a word or phrase, the thesis states the specific point of view of the author in relation to the topic and identifies the focus of the paper for the reader. Thesis statements may be the most difficult part of academic writing, but the stronger the thesis statement, the easier the rest of the paper is to write. The following three examples show the difference between weak and strong thesis statements for a paper on the Emancipation Proclamation.
Weak: Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation to free the slaves.
Better: Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation to free the slaves in the South, hoping they would fight with the North to secure the Union.
Best: Although slaves in the South were freed under the provisions of the Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln’s purpose in issuing the proclamation was not to abolish slavery but to end the war more quickly.
In each successive example, the focus of the paper becomes narrower as the thesis statement becomes more specific. The first thesis identifies only one general fact about the topic. The second gives a more specific point of view but is still general compared with the third thesis. The last example tells the reader specifically what to expect in the paper.
In the early stages of writing, authors should be flexible in terms of their theses. Writers usually refine their thesis statements as they continue to research their topics and write their drafts. Doing so is normal. Authors may find they have either too much or too little information to support their original positions and must shift the foci of their papers.
In traditional American academic writing, the thesis statement is usually placed in the introductory paragraph or section of a paper. Having the thesis at or near the beginning allows the reader to identify the author’s specific intent and position immediately. Readers may then follow the supporting points and arguments more easily. Depending on the purpose, however, and the intrinsic interest the target audience may have for the topic, authors may place thesis statements anywhere in their papers that makes sense and grabs the attention of their readers, even at the end of their papers as part of their conclusions.
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Occasionally, authors may use implied thesis statements. Although still well developed, implied thesis statements are never stated. Readers deduce the theses from the content of the papers. Using implied thesis statements may be risky, however, because what is clear to authors may not be clear to readers.
Some forms of writing do not require thesis statements at all (not even implied theses). These forms include factual reports, many types of business writing, and narrative or descriptive pieces.
Introduction
It’s been said that, if an author creates a strong beginning and a strong ending, what happens in the middle is not important. Although that statement is not entirely true, especially in academic and scholarly writing, a strong beginning is still important in well-written papers.
Introductions are the hooks authors create to capture the attention of their readers. Through introductions, authors must not only identify the content of their papers but also engage the readers sufficiently so that they continue reading. To do so, authors should avoid weak introductions, illustrated in the following three examples:
This paper is about the Emancipation Proclamation.
Lincoln had several reasons for issuing the Emancipation Proclamation.
The Emancipation Proclamation was issued in 1863 to free the slaves in the Confederacy.
Although these statements do tell readers something about the paper, they generate little enthusiasm for continuing to read.
Writers may choose from several techniques and variations of these techniques to build interest- grabbing introductions. For each of the four techniques listed, an example of an introduction for the paper on the Emancipation Proclamation is given:
• Statistics or unusual facts: In 1863, only 50,000 of the 4 million slaves in the United States were freed when Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. The remainder of the 3.1 million slaves in the South did not gain their freedom until the areas in which they lived were under the control of Union armies. However, not until the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment were all slaves released from bondage (Emancipation Proclamation, 2011).
• An anecdote, brief story, or illustration: On a recent trip to Washington, D.C., my family and I saw the Emancipation Proclamation during a rare exhibit of the document at the National Archives. Hearing a parent explain that Lincoln freed the slaves with this proclamation, I realized the extent to which the intent and actual effect of this document are misunderstood by most Americans.
• A quotation: “My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery,” stated Lincoln in his letter of August 22, 1862, to
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Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, in response to one of Greeley’s editorials. Yet many Americans erroneously believe that the intent of the Emancipation Proclamation, announced in September 1862 and officially issued January 1, 1863, was to free the slaves (Emancipation Proclamation, 2008).
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