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Marmara Üniversitesi İ.İ.B. Dergisi YIL 2014, CİLT XXXVI, SAYI H, S. 245-298 Doi No: 10.14780/iibd.22226

ETHICAL ISSUES IN MARKETING: AN APPLICATION FOR UNDERSTANDING ETHICAL DECISION MAKING

Nurettin PARILTI*, Banu KÜLTER DEMİRGÜNEŞ**, Bülent ÖZSAÇMACI

Abstract

In recent years business ethics and social responsibility have gained great im­ portance in marketing practices, especially in societal marketing practices. Business­ es infinitely struggle to indicate their contributions to society. Consumers consciously evaluate this contribution. Manipulated consumer choices and unethical marketing applications can affect purchasing behavior. Particularly intense competition, glo­ balization and societal consciousness transform businesses into social organizations and lead them into marketing efforts offering social value. Although business ethics and social responsibility o f businesses have gained more attention in recent years, defining consumers’ perceptions on ethical issues is still minimal. This study presents an empirical research o f consumer perceptions on ethical issues. Reflection o f this perception on purchasing behavior is also another important issue to be considered.

The aim o f this study is to investigate the factors related with ethical issues in marketing practices and to reveal possible influences o f these factors on consumers’ ethical decision making. The main objective o f the study is to find out consumers’ perceptions on businesses’ ethical issues such as misleading advertising, deceptive packaging and to reveal the impact o f these issues on their ethical purchasing behav­ ior or ethical decision making. It also reveals which criteria is more important for ethical decision making.

This study reveals that consumers reflect their ethical perceptions on their purchasing behavior. Each ethical issue has been found to be a positive effect on pur­ chasing behavior. Businesses’ practices on packaging has been indicated as the most effective ethical issue on purchasing behavior. The study is considered to be a signifi­ cant outcome for businesses to direct their advertising, packaging and other activities.

Prof. Dr. Gazi University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Management. www.nurettinparilti(5)gmail.com

Assistant Prof. Ahi Evran University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Management. www.banukulter2000(5)vahoo.com Assistant Prof. Çankaya University, Department of Foreign Trade. www.bozsacmaci(5>cankava.edu.tr

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Keywords: Marketing Ethic, Social Responsibility, Purchasing Behavior.

JEL Classification: M14, M31.

PAZARLAMADA ETİK KONULAR: ETİK KARAR ALMA ÜZERİNE BİR UYGULAMA

Özet

Son yıllarda işletme etiği ve sosyal sorumluluk kavramları pazarlama alanın­ da özellikle de sosyal pazarlama faaliyetlerinde büyük önem kazanmıştır, işletmeler, topluma yönelik çabalarını göstermek için büyük bir uğraş vermektedirler. Tüketiciler ise söz konusu çabaları ve katkıları bilinçli olarak değerlendirmektedirler. Manipiile edilmiş tüketici tercihleri ve etik olmayan pazarlama uygulamaları, tüketicilerin satın alma davranışım etkileyebilmektedir. Özellikle yoğun rekabet, küreselleşme ve sosyal bilinçlenme, işletmeleri birer sosyal örgüt konumuna dönüştürmekte ve sosyal değer sunan pazarlama çabalarına öncülük etmektedir. Son yılarda işletmelerin etik ve sos­ yal sorumlulukları önem kazanmasına rağmen, tüketicilerin etik konular ile ilgili al­ gılarını tanımlamak konusunda eksiklikler söz konusudur. Bu çalışma, tüketicilerin etik konular ile ilgili algılarını deneysel bir şekilde sunmaktadır. Söz konusu algının, satın alma davranışına yansıması ise düşünülmesi gereken bir diğer önemli unsurdur

Bu çalışmanın amacı, işletmenin pazarlama faaliyetlerinde, etik konusu ile ilgili olabilecek faktörleri belirterek, söz konusu faktörlerin tüketicilerin etik karar verme sürecindeki olası etkilerini ortaya koymaktır. Tüketicilerin aldatıcı (yanıltıcı) reklam, aldatıcı paketleme, gibi konularda algılarını öğrenmek ve bu meselelerin on­ ların satın alma davranışlarında ya da etik karar verme süreçlerinde etkisini tespit etmek amaçlanmaktadır. Çalışma aynı zamanda hangi unsurun etik karar vermede daha önemli olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır.

Çalışmanın sonucunda tüketicilerin etik konulara yönelik algılarını, satın alma davranışlarına yansıttıkları ortaya çıkmaktadır. Her bir etik meselenin satın alma davranışı üzerinde pozitif bir etkisi söz konusudur, işletmelerin paketleme faa­ liyetleri konusundaki uygulamaları satın alma davranışı üzerinde en etkili unsur ol­ maktadır. Çalışmanın işletmelere reklam, paketleme, çevreyi ve tüketiciyi önemseme gibi konularda yol gösterebileceği düşünülmektedir

Anahtar kelimeler: Pazarlama Etiği, Sosyal Sorumluluk, Satın Alma Davra­ nışı.

JEL Sınıflaması: M14, M31.

1. Introduction Marketing management is an art and science of choosing target markets and

getting, keeping and growing customers through creating, delivering, and communi-

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eating superior customer value1. From this definition we can say that the concept of customer value settled to the center of the contemporary marketing efforts. According to American Marketing Association (AMA), value represents the collective concep­ tion of what communities find desirable, important and morally proper. Companies should specifically include a conscious attempt about relating moral principles to all their business practices by the means of dealing and caring about all its stakeholders (customers, employees, suppliers and, local communities) as a result of ethical behav­ ior and social responsibility.

In the modem economic environment companies are stressed with the commu­ nication practices to make sure that customers get the accurate marketing message. Some of the companies may attempt unethical ways (e.g. producing low quality prod­ ucts, unfair pricing, misleading advertising, deceptive packaging) to take the lead in the competition challenge and influence consumers’ purchasing behavior to gather a bigger piece from the market share. The concept of consumerism takes place as a social force to protect consumer interests in the marketplace by organizing consumer pressures on business2. Consumerism is the public demand both for refinement in marketing practices to make them more informative, more responsive, more sincere, more truthful and more efficient, and for a new concern with factors other than pri­ vately consumed goods and services that determine the quality of life3.

On the other hand, a growing number of customers are becoming aware of the ethical implications of the products they buy and are adapting their purchasing behavior accordingly4. Ethical consumer behavior is a popular concept, which can be described as ‘decision-making, purchases and other consumption experiences that are affected by the consumer’s ethical concerns5. Through ethical concerns, consumers can communicate their attitudes or perceptions towards companies or marketing prac­ titioners into expressed purchasing decisions. A socially-responsible company will surely care about customers, employees, suppliers, the local community, society, and the environment.

The overall objective of this study is to investigate factors related with business ethics and to reveal possible influences of these factors on consumers’ ethical deci-

1 M. Ahmad, et.al. “Ethical Evaluation of Pharmaceutical Marketing in Pakistan”, Acta Bio- ethica, 17(2), 2011, pp. 215-224.

2 H. Ismail and M.EA.K. Panni, “Consumers Perceptions on the Consumerism Issues and Their Influence on Their Purchasing Behavior: A View from Malaysian Food Industry”, Journal of Legal, Ethical and Regulatory Issues, 11(1), 2008, pp. 43-64.

3 S.A. Sherlaker, Marketing Management, (6th ed). Himalaya Publishing House, 1999. 4 R. Harrison et.al. The Ethical Consumer, London: Sage Publications, 2005; T. Mason,

“The Importance of Being Ethical”, Marketing, 2000, pp. 27; RJ. McGoldrick, and O.M. Freestone, “Ethical Product Premiums: Antecedents and Extent of Consumers’ Willing­ ness to Pay”, International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research, 18(2), 2008, pp. 185-201.

5 E. Cooper-Martin and M.B. Holbrook, “Ethical Consumption Experiences and Ethical Space” Advances in Consumer Research, 20, 1993, pp. 113-118.

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sion making. The main objective of the study is to find out consumers’ perceptions on businesses’ ethical issues such as misleading advertising, unfair pricing, deceptive packaging, caring about consumers and environmental issues and to reveal the impact of these issues on their ethical purchasing behavior or ethical decision making.

2. Literature Review When a marketing practitioner or a scholar interested with marketing ethics, at

least they need to know about Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), ethical issues in marketing, ethical decision making process, and ethical purchasing behavior and con­ sumerism concepts. In the following sections related with literature review, authors will explain about each aspect in length.

2.1. Business Ethics Both marketing practitioners and scholars approach ethics concept from dif­

ferent perspectives. One perspective is that ethics is about being moral individual and personal values which are the key elements to ethical decisions in marketing. Ethical features such as honesty, fairness, responsibility, and citizenship are assumed to be values that can guide complex marketing decisions in the context of an organization. On the other hand, approaching ethics from an organizational perspective assumes that establishing organizational values, codes, and training is necessary to provide consis­ tent and shared approaches to making ethical decisions6. Kotier (1997)7 approached this subject from a different point of view (best long-term interests of consumers and society) and called as, “societal marketing”. According to Kotier, marketers should build social and ethical considerations into their marketing practices.

Ethics has been termed the study and philosophy of human conduct, with an emphasis on the determination of right and wrong. For marketers, ethics in the work­ place refers to rules (standards, principles) governing the conduct of organizational members and the consequences of marketing decisions8. Ethics is defined as an in­ quiry into the nature and grounds of morality where morality means moral judgments, standards, and rules of conduct9. Murphy et al., (2005)10 mentioned ethical marketing as, practices that emphasize transparent, trustworthy, and responsible personal and

6 O.C. Ferrell and L. Ferrell, “Ethics and Marketing Education.” Marketing Education Re­ view, 14 (3), 2005, pp. 71-79.

7 Philip Kotier, Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation and Con­ trol, 9th ed., Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 1997.

8 O.C. Ferrell, “A Framework for Understanding Organizational Ethics: New Challenges for Business Schools and Corporate Leaders”. R.A. Peterson and O.C. Ferrell, (eds.) Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2005, pp. 3-17.

9 J. Tsalikis and D. Fritzsch, “Business Ethics: A Literature Review with a Focus on Market­ ing Ethics” Journal of Business Ethics, 8(2), 1989, pp. 695-743.

10 Patrick E. Murphy et.al. Ethical Marketing, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2005.

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organizational marketing policies and actions that exhibit integrity as well as fairness to consumers and other stakeholders.

The literature in marketing and business ethics has grown even more volu­ minous and diversified after 1970s. Most of the models that have emerged are the products of scholars in psychology or related disciplines, including organizational behavior and marketing11. However, many researchers have worked on marketing ethics era and developed several theories12. Mayo and Marks (1990)13 also focused their research on the influences of deontological and teleological evaluations on the ethical judgments of marketing researchers as well as the relationship between ethical judgments and ethical intentions.

Deontological (or rule-based) theories and teleological (or consequential) the­ ories are the two broad categories of normative ethics theory. Deontological theories assume that a set of universal rules define what is right. These rules are “means”-ori- ented and accepted as guidelines for action. Fundamental to deontological theories is the inherent rightness of the behavior. Teleological theories, on the other hand, address the rightness or wrongness of an action on the basis of its consequences. One formulation of this type of theory is utilitarianism, which emphasizes creating the maximum benefits for the largest number of people, while incurring the least amount of damages14.

Another study focused on the influences of organizational ethical culture, and locus of control on deontological norms, and ethical perceptions15. Singhapakdi and Yiteli (1996)16 in their research, also examine the impact of the intensity of a moral issue on perceptions of an ethical problem and intentions. They explored the aspects of moral intensity investigated are the extent of consequences, social consensus, the probability of effect, temporal immediacy, proximity, and the concentration of effect.

In the long run, ethics and social responsibility issues should have positive impacts on the success of an organization. A responsible and ethical business practice

11 H. Tseng et.al. “Modem Business Ethics Research: Concepts, Theories, and Relation­ ships” Journal of Business Ethics, 91(4), 2009, pp.587-597.

12 S.D. Hunt and S.A. Vitell, “General Theory of Marketing Ethics” Journal of Macro Mar­ keting, 6(1), 1986, pp. 5-16; A.J. Dubinsky and B. Loken, “Analyzing Ethical Decision Making in Marketing”, Journal of Business Research, 19(2), 1989, pp. 83- 107; O.C. Ferrell et.al. “A Synthesis of Ethical Decision Models for Marketing”. Journal of Micro- marketing, Fall, 1989, pp. 55-64.

13 Michael A. Mayo et.al. “An Empirical Investigation of a General Theory of Marketing Ethics”, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 18, 1990, pp. 163-171.

14 James Y.L. Thong and Chee-Sing Yap, “Testing an Ethical Decision-Making Theory: The Case of Softlifting”, Journal of Management Information Systems. 15(1), 1998 pp 213-237.

15 Anusom Singhapakdi and Scott J. Vitell, “Marketing Ethics: Factors Influencing Percep­ tions of Ethical Problems and Alternatives.” Journal of Macro Marketing 10 1990 pp 4-18.

16 Singhapakdi and Vitell, ibid, pp.4-18.

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concludes in better customer and employee relations. This is why ethical judgments are made by consumers as well, and these judgments are likely to influence the con­ sumers’ acceptance or rejection of a company’s products17.

Marketing ethics and social responsibility issues are relating to the concepts of business ethics, community investment, environment, governances, human rights, market place and workplace. Corporate social responsibility is related to the social contract between business and the society11*. Steiner (1972) elucidated the concept of social contract as: “At any one time in any society there is a set of generally accepted relationships, obligations and duties between the major institutions and the people.” The concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) is viewed as a comprehensive set of policies, practices and programs that are integrated into business operations, supply chains, and decision-making processes throughout the company and includes responsibility for current and past actions as well as future impacts. CSR goes beyond charity and requires that a responsible company take into full account of the impact on all stakeholders and on the environment when making decisions19.

Murray and Vogel (1997)20 found that CSR actions significantly predict pur­ chase intentions. Consumers’ purchase intentions were related to whether the compa­ ny’s ethics record exceeded their expectation. It is revealed that consumers expressed willingness to pay more for ethically made products21. A model of consumer influ­ ence (in terms of special interest groups and boycotts) on CSR is proposed by Smith (2001). Researchers also coined the term of corporate societal marketing to describe a range of ten activities that have economic and noneconomic objectives and influence social welfare. They show that questionable or unfair business practices may create serious penalties for the companies. Unethical firm behavior may damage firm repu­ tation and decrease consumer trust22.

17 E.C. Alexander, “Consumer Reactions to Unethical Service Recovery”, Journal of Busi­ ness Ethics, 36, 2002, pp. 223-237; Anusorn Singhapakdi, “Perceived Importance of Eth­ ics and Ethical Decisions in Marketing”, Journal of Business Research, 45(1), 1999, pp. 89-99.

18 Donald R Robin, and R. Eric Reidenbach, “Social Responsibility, Ethics, and Marketing Strategy: Closing the Gaps between Concept and Application”, Journal of Marketing, 51, 1987, pp.44-58.

19 M. Mohamed Labbai, “Social Responsibility and Ethics in Marketing”, International Marketing Conference on Marketing & Society, 8-10 April, IIMK. 2007.

20 K.B. Murray and C.M. Vogel, “Using a Hierarchy-of-Effects Approach to Gauge the Ef­ fectiveness of Corporate Social Responsibility to Generate Goodwill toward the Firm: Financial Versus Nonfinancial Impacts” Journal of Business Research. 38(2), 1997, pp. 141-159.

21 R Auger et.al. “What Will Consumers Pay for Social Product Features?” Journal of Busi­ ness Ethics, 42(3), 2003, pp. 281-304.

22 Volkan Özbek et. al. “The Impact of Unfair Business Practices on Bank Customers: An Experimental Study”, Ege Academic Review, 12(1), 2012, pp. 23-30.

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2.2. Ethical Issues in Marketing

Within the academic history of marketing, one of the first articles that ap­ peared in the Journal of Marketing was an article by Charles E Phillips (1939) enti­ tled, “Some Theoretical Considerations Regarding Fair Trade Laws.” Most academic publishing in the 1950s focused on issues such as fair trade, antitrust, advertising and pricing23. Marketing ethics examines systematically marketing and marketing morality, related to 4P-issues such as unsafe products, deceptive pricing, deceptive advertising or bribery, discrimination in distribution. According to some researchers, the fairness on trade practices construct which are also termed as the micro issues of consumerism consider various exploitative business practices among which the most­ ly discussed issues are misleading advertising, unfair pricing, deceptive packaging, caring about consumers and environmental issues, product adulteration, black mar­ keting, misbranding practice etc. Some of these factors (misleading advertising, unfair pricing, deceptive packaging, caring about consumers and environmental issues) are used as the core elements for this research to figure out the possible influence on con­ sumers’ ethical decisions24.

Over the past few years it has been observed that producers are increasingly employing several packaging practices in order to mislead consumers. First, packag­ ing sizes and the relation between packaging size and its content and similar strate­ gies (e.g. adding gifts) are employed in order to lead the consumer into thinking that there is greater quantity of the product. Second, the design of the packaging implies wrongful or misleading information. Third, producers imitate another’s packaging in order to imply a certain geographic provenance or quality of the product. Finally, the price may be wrongfully indicated or absent from the packaging25. There is a slight degree of skepticism among consumers about quality of products in the market, there is obvious mistrust of the communications manufacturers use to attract buyers to those products26. It is possible for the majority of consumers to consider that manufacturers’ procedures for handling complaints and settling complaints are not satisfactory.

Hence, marketing scholars and practitioners have long been interested in con­ sumers’ perceptions of, and their reactions to different marketing practices. In par­ ticular, ethical considerations in advertising are a long standing issue. Advertising is the most visible and the most criticized component of marketing communications. In­ deed, some questionable (i.e. ads to children, alcohol and tobacco ads, negative politi­ cal ads) and deceptive/misleading advertising practices are the very reason for putting

23 O. C. Ferrell, “Nature and Scope of Marketing Ethics”, W. Wilkie, G. T. Gundlach and L. Block (eds.), Explorations of Marketing in Society (Thomson-Southwestern, Ohio), 2007, pp. 858-875.

24 M. Ali Quazi, “Managerial Views of Consumerism: A Two Country Comparison”, Euro­ pean Journal of Marketing, 36, (1/2), 2002, pp. 36-50; Sherlaker, ibid. 1999.

25 IMCO, “Internal Market and Consumer Protection: Misleading Packaging Practices”, Di­ rectorate-General for Internal Policies, European Parliament: Policy Department A: Scien­ tific and Economic Policy, 2012.

26 Ismail and Panni, ibid. pp. 43-64.

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the advertising under fire. As a form of persuasive communication, advertising can easily be used to mislead the target audience27. So, deceptive or misleading advertis­ ing should be legally defined as: the standard that has generally relied on what a rea­ sonable consumer would take away from an advertisement under the circumstances28.

Attas (1999) argued that an advertisement will be deemed misleading or de­ ceptive only if it is reasonable to expect that persons exposed to it, or those targeted by it, would come to hold false beliefs as a result of exposure to it. It might be thought that the consumer mislead by an advertisement will be tempted to buy the advertised product and in that way either getting less than he thought he would or paying more than he should. Furthermore, the consumer’s skepticism about the fairness of advertis­ ing can cause them to ignore ethical consideration for buying products29.

Unfair pricing is also a burning consumerist issue since pricing is the most sensitive issue to the consumers. Ethically, price should be equal or proportional to benefit which is taken by the consumers. French et.al. (1982) and Lisa, (2004) found that majority of the respondents believe that price charged by the companies is exces­ sive and unfair30. Uusitalo and Oksanen (2004)31 argued that fairness with pricing is an important consideration among the consumers in involving in the pro-ethical or pro-consumerist purchasing.

Additional ethical issues connected to pricing consist of non-price price in­ creases, misleading price reduction, price advertisements which can be misleading or considered as deceitful and their limits are not explained well, the practices of price fixing that affect the structure of competition, predatory pricing which aims to have monopolistic position, discriminatory pricing, pricing applications of products according to the products’ unit or quantity basis and practicing of misleading pricing methods32.

Ellen, Wiener and Cobb-Walgren (1991) and Shrum, McCarty and Lowrey (1995) argued that consumers’ skepticism regarding the environmental consumerism practice discourage them to be involved in ethical and pro-environmental purchas­ ing33. These practices also known as green marketing and green marketing refers to the development and distribution of ecologically-safe products. Mingquan (2003)34

27 Özbek et. al. ibid, pp.23-30. 28 S. Koslow, “Can the Truth Hurt? How Honest and Persuasive Advertising Can Uninten­

tionally Lead to Increased Consumer Skepticism”, Journal of Consumer Affairs, 34(2), 2000, pp. 14.

29 Ismail and Panni, ibid. pp. 43-64.

30 Ismail and Panni, ibid. pp. 43-64. 31 Quit Uusitalo and Retta Oksanen, “Ethical consumerism – a view from Finland”, Interna­

tional Journal of Consumer Studies, 28(3), 2004, pp. 214.

32 Chonko, ibid. 1995.

33 Ismail and Panni, ibid. pp. 43-64. 34 Z., Green Mingquan, Food Market Promises Bright Future, Market Trend, Available

http://www.tdctrade.com/report/mkt/mkt_031002.htm. (13 October 2003).

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revealed that the organizations have growing concerns towards the environmental con­ sumerism. Charter (1992); Moisander (2001)35 argued that the consumer pro-environ­ mental purchasing behavior is positively influenced by the availability of the ethical and social responsible firms that offer environmental friendly or sound products.

Customer care is another very important issue for any business in satisfying their customers because proper customer care can create an image to the customers as the ethical and social responsible firm. French et.al. (1982) defined customer care as the companies’ engagement in complaint handling and after sales service to the cus­ tomers36. Companies should try to provide a value added service through; polite and courteous service, offering confidentiality and an open door policy, proactive problem solving and guidance and handling request in timely and rational manner.

Before proceeding to ethical decision-making process, it must be clearly ex­ plored the difference between ethical issues and ethical dilemmas. An ethical issue is a problem, situation, or opportunity that requires an individual, group or organization to choose among several actions that must be evaluated as right or wrong. On the contrary, an ethical dilemma is a problem, situation or opportunity that requires an in­ dividual, group or organization to choose among several wrong or unethical actions37. For marketers and other professionals, ethical dilemmas arise when responsibilities and loyalties conflict and a decision about the appropriate or ethical course of action must be made. Often a choice is required among alternative actions that meet the ob­ ligations or competing interests. In this respect, an ethical decision-making process can be helpful to guide the decision makers to address significant issues that should be considered before taking action38.

2.3. Ethical Decision Making Process To effectively enhance ethical and socially responsible practices in marketing,

it is important for managers and policymakers to have a better understanding of the marketers’ ethical/socially responsible decision processes. Ethical decision-making refers to the process of evaluating and choosing among alternatives in a manner con­ sistent with the ethical principles. In making ethical decisions, it is necessary to per­ ceive and eliminate unethical options and select the best ethical alternative39.

The ethical decision-making process includes several steps that must be pur­ suing to determine the right course of action or resolve an ethical dilemma. The first

35 M. Charter, Green Marketing: The introduction; marketing practices, Fagbokforlaget, Norway, 1992; J. Moisander, Representation of Green Consumerism: A Constructionist Critique, Helsinki School of Economics, Helsinki, A: 185, 2001.

36 Ismail and Pan

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