July 27, 2022

Pauline has been asked to reorganize her department, eliminating at least two people within the office. Pauline has strong personal relationships with everyone in her offi

Initial Postings: Read and reflect on the assigned readings for the week. Then post what you thought was the most important concept(s), method(s), term(s), and/or any other thing that you felt was worthy of your understanding in each assigned textbook chapter.

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Also, provide a graduate-level response to each of the following questions:

Pauline has been asked to reorganize her department, eliminating at least two people within the office. Pauline has strong personal relationships with everyone in her office and being asked to complete this task is very hard on her. Thinking back to Stage Four of the conflict process, discuss one of the types of intentions with which Pauline might struggle in this situation.

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Chapter14.ConflictandNegotiation.pptx

Essentials of Organizational Behavior

Fifteenth Edition

Chapter 14

Conflict and Negotiation

Learning Objectives

14.1 Describe the three types of conflict and the three loci of conflict.

14.2 Outline the conflict process.

14.3 Contrast distributive and integrative bargaining.

14.4 Apply the five steps of the negotiation process.

14.5 Show how individual differences influence negotiations.

14.6 Describe the social factors that influence negotiations.

14.7 Assess the roles and functions of third-party negotiations.

Definition of Conflict Learning Objective 14.1

Conflict: process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about

Conflict primarily deals with perception. If nobody thinks there is conflict, then no conflict exists. Conflict can be experienced in an organization through many different avenues. It can be that the goals of the individuals are incompatible or there is a difference of opinion over the interpretation of facts. Many conflicts also arise through disagreements about how people should behave.

Perspectives of Conflict

Functional conflict: supports the goals of the group and improves its performance

Dysfunctional conflict: hinders group performance

Contemporary perspectives differentiate types of conflict based on their effects.

Conflict and Unit Performance (Exhibit 14-1)

This exhibit shows the effect of levels of conflict.

Long Description:

The vertical axis of the graph represents unit performance and from low to high. The horizontal axis represents the level of conflict and ranges from low to high. The line is a uniform bell curve.

Situation A is a point on the left tail of the curve, low in performance and low in conflict.

Situation B is a point at the midpoint, representing the peak of the curve, high in performance and medium in conflict.

Situation C is a point on the right tail of the curve, low in performance and high in conflict.

Further details corresponding to the situations and level of conflict, type of conflict and unit’s internal characteristics and performance outcome are summarized below:

Situation A

Level of conflict: Low or none.

Type of conflict: Dysfunctional.

Unit’s internal characteristics: Apathetic; Stagnant; Nonresponsive to change; Lack of new ideas.

Unit performance outcome: Low.

Situation B

Level of conflict: Optimal.

Type of conflict: Functional.

Unit’s internal characteristics: Viable; Self-critical; Innovative.

Unit performance outcome: High.

Situation C

Level of conflict: High.

Type of conflict: Dysfunctional.

Unit’s internal characteristics: Disruptive; Chaotic; Uncooperative.

Unit performance outcome: Low.

Types of Conflict

Three categories of conflict:

Relationship conflict:

Interpersonal relationships

Task conflict:

Work content and goals

Process conflict:

How the work is done

You can assess the focus of conflict by looking at either task, relationship, or process.

Relationship conflicts (based on interpersonal relationships) are almost always dysfunctional and are the most psychologically exhausting.

Task conflict (relating to the content of the work) slightly reduces the extent to which people collaborate, and moderately increases the degree to which they compete with one another. This has a strong negative effect on their trust and job attitudes.

If this type of conflict exists at low to moderate levels, then this is a functional conflict that can help individuals seek clarification or new ideas on how to accomplish their goals.

Process conflicts are often about delegation and roles. Process conflict occurs when there is disagreement on how the work gets done. Low levels of process conflict represent functional conflict. They can become highly personalized and quickly devolve into relationship conflicts.

It also appears to matter whether other types of conflict occur at the same time. Furthermore, who perceives conflict also matters.

Loci of Conflict

Three sources of conflict:

Dyadic conflict: conflict between two people

Intragroup conflict: conflict occurring within a group or team

Intergroup conflict: conflict between groups or teams

Another way to understand conflict is to consider where it occurs – its locus.

In sum, the traditional view that all conflict should be eliminated is short-sighted. The interactionist view that conflict can stimulate active discussion without spilling over into negative, disruptive emotions is incomplete. Thinking about conflict in terms of type and locus helps us realize that conflict is probably inevitable in most organizations. Therefore, it’s important to manage the variables of the conflict process.

The Conflict Process (Exhibit 14-2) Learning Objective 14.2

The conflict process is outlined above; in the following slides, we will look at each step individually.

Long Description:

The details of the various stages are as follows:

Stage 1: Potential opposition or incompatibility. The antecedent conditions of communication include: Structure, and Personal variables.

Stage 2: Cognition and personalization. This of two types: Perceived or felt.

Stage 3: Intentions. Conflict-handling intentions of Competing, Collaborating, Compromising, Avoiding, and Accommodating.

Stage 4: Behavior. Overt conflict of party’s behavior and other’s reaction.

Stage 5: Outcomes. Increased group performance or Decreased group performance.

Stage I: Potential Opposition or Incompatibility

Communication

Barriers exist

Too much or too little

Structure

Group size, age, diversity

Organizational rewards, goals, group dependency

Personal Variables

Personality types

Emotionality

Stage I of the conflict process is potential opposition or incompatibility. In this stage there are three main conditions that can cause conflict to arise. They are communication, structure, and personal variables. Communication may cause conflict when words mean different things to different people and misunderstandings result. Communication can be functional to a point, but when too much communication is given, it can cause frustrations and sometimes there are barriers in place to effectively hear what is being communicated.

Stage II: Cognition and Personalization

Potential for conflict is actualized

Parties “make sense” of conflict by defining it and its potential solutions

Emotions play a major role in shaping perceptions

Perceived conflict: awareness needed for actualization

Felt conflict: emotional involvement – parties experience anxiety, tension, frustration, or hostility

Stage II looks at the recognition or cognition of the conflict and the personalization or the emotional part of the conflict. As stated earlier, in order for conflict to be present there must be an awareness of its existence, defined as perceived conflict. Once people are aware of the conflict, emotions are expressed that can impact the outcome of the conflict; this is defined as felt conflict. Emotions can include anxiety, tension, frustration, or hostility.

Stage III: Intentions

Intentions:

Decisions to act in a given way

Inferred (often erroneous) intentions may cause greater conflict

Five conflict handling intentions:

Competing

Collaborating

Avoiding

Accommodating

Compromising

Stage III starts to look at the intentions of the individuals involved. These intentions include the determination to act in a certain way, but it is important to realize behavior does not always accurately reflect intention. Sometimes people act out of emotion and not rational thinking.

Using two dimensions – cooperativeness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other party’s concerns) and assertiveness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy her own concerns) – we can identify five conflict handling intentions: competing (assertive and uncooperative); collaborating (assertive and cooperative); avoiding (unassertive and uncooperative); accommodating (unassertive and cooperative); and compromising (midrange on both assertiveness and cooperativeness).

Dynamic Escalation of Conflict (Exhibit 14-3)

Stage IV moves us beyond intentions to the chosen behavior in the conflict. This is when conflict becomes visible. Usually each party is using overt attempts to implement their own intentions.

This step may cause a reaction in others, either because the individual miscalculated someone’s intentions or he or she was not skilled in translating his or her intentions into behavior. This can cause functional conflicts that may be helpful, or dysfunction conflicts that can be highly destructive.

Functional conflicts are usually at the lower range of the continuum, while conflicts that reach the upper range of the continuum are almost always dysfunctional.

Long Description:

The escalation continuum is as follows:

No conflict

Minor disagreements or misunderstandings

Overt questioning or challenging of others

Assertive verbal attacks

Threats and ultimatums

Aggressive physical attacks

Overt efforts to destroy the other party

Annihilatory conflict.

Stage V: Outcomes

Functional Outcomes:

Improves decision quality

Stimulates creativity and innovation

Encourages interest and curiosity

Problems are aired

Accepts change and self-evaluation

Dysfunctional Outcomes:

Group is less effective

Reduces cohesiveness and communications

Leads to the destruction of the group

Stage V looks at the outcomes of conflict resolution. Functional outcomes include increasing group performance, encouraging interest and curiosity, and creating an environment for self-evaluation and change. Dysfunctional outcomes include discontented workers, reduced group cohesiveness, and infighting. In order to create functional conflict, it is important to reward dissent and punish conflict avoiders.

Managing Conflict

Conflict management:

The use of resolution and stimulation techniques to achieve the desired level of conflict

Three domains: strategy, function, and worker

Minimize counterproductive conflict:

Recognize when there really is a disagreement

Encourage open, frank discussion focused on interests

Have opposing groups pick important issues and work for mutual satisfaction

Emphasize shared interests

If managers recognize that in some situations conflict can be beneficial, they can encourage people to challenge the system and develop fresh ideas.

Conflict management is the use of resolution and stimulation techniques to achieve the desired level of conflict. There are three domains that can be targeted: strategy, function, and worker. Strategy includes designing conflict management activities with an understanding of their effect on the organizational strategy. Function might include encouraging the systematic adoption of conflict management practices, understanding employees’ needs, and job design to reduce conflict. The worker domain might include improving employee perceptions of conflict, fostering ties and cohesion between people, and adaptively addressing conflict as it emerges.

Counterproductive conflict can be minimized. Recognize when there really is a disagreement. Encourage open, frank discussion focused on interests. Have opposing groups pick important issues and work for mutual satisfaction. Emphasize shared interests.

Cultural Influences

Culture influences conflict resolution strategies

Collectivist cultures try to use indirect methods to preserve relationships

Promote the good of the group as a whole

Individualist cultures confront differences of opinion directly and openly

There are numerous global implications in the area of conflict as different cultures will view conflict through unique lenses. For example, U.S. managers are more likely to use competing tactics whereas Japanese managers will tend toward compromise and avoidance.

Negotiation Learning Objective 14.3

Negotiation: process that occurs when two or more parties decide how to allocate scarce resources

Negotiation or bargaining is the process where the people involved work on creating a deal that is mutually beneficial. Two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them.

Distributive Versus Integrative Bargaining (Exhibit 14-4)

There are two main bargaining approaches – distributive and integrative. Distributive bargaining seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources and often creates a win/lose situation. Integrative bargaining seeks one or more settlements that can create a win-win situation for all parties involved.

Long Description:

The details corresponding to the bargaining characteristic and the comparison are as follows:

Goal: Distributive, get as much of the pie as possible; Integrative, Expand the pie so that both parties are satisfied.

Motivation: Distributive, win-lose; Integrative, win-win.

Focus: Distributive, positions (“I can’t go beyond this point on this issue.”); Integrative, interests (“Can you explain why this issue is so important to you?”)

Information sharing: Distributive, low (Sharing information will only allow other party to take advantage); High (Sharing information will allow each party to find ways to satisfy interests of each party).

Duration of relationship: Short term; Long term.

Staking out the Bargaining Zone (Exhibit 14-5)

This exhibit depicts distributive bargaining. Each negotiator has a target point that defines his goals and a resistance point that marks the lowest acceptable outcome. The area between these points is the settlement range in which both parties’ goals can be met.

Long Description:

The spectrum’s starting point on the left is labeled party A’s target point, and its ending point on the right is labeled party B’s target point.

The section of party A’s aspiration range runs about two-thirds of the spectrum to the right, to a point labeled Party A’s resistance point.

The section of party B’s aspiration range runs about two-thirds of the spectrum to the left, to a point labeled Party B’s resistance point.

The section in the middle of the spectrum, where the two aspiration ranges overlap and between the two resistance points, is labeled settlement range.

Integrative Bargaining

Integrative bargaining: a win-win solution is possible

But:

Parties must be open with information and candid about their concerns

Both parties must be sensitive regarding the other’s needs

Parties must be able to trust each other

Both parties must be willing to be flexible

In order for integrative bargaining to be successful, parties must be open with information and candid about their concerns. In addition, both parties must work to pay attention to the needs of the others involved. This all needs to happen so trust occurs. In the process both parties must be willing to be flexible in working toward a solution.

The Negotiation Process (Exhibit 14-6) Learning Objective 14.4

The negotiation process is depicted in five steps: Preparation and planning, definition of ground rules, clarification and justification, bargaining and problem solving, and closure and implementation. You should determine your BATNA and that of the other party before proceeding with negotiations. BATNA represents the Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement or the lowest acceptable value you will take for a negotiated agreement. Then anything above your BATNA is a good negotiated outcome.

Individual Differences in Negotiation Effectiveness Learning Objective 14.5

Personality Traits

Little evidence to support

Disagreeable introvert is best

Moods & Emotions

Showing anger helps in distributive negotiations

Positive moods help integrative negotiations

Culture and Race

Negotiating styles vary across national cultures

Gender

Men are slightly better

Many stereotypes – low power positions

Four factors influence how effectively individuals negotiate: personality, mood/emotions, culture, and gender. Many individual differences are interwoven in the negotiation process and impact the effectiveness of the outcomes. Personality traits will impact outcomes as extroverts tend to be weaker at negotiation because they will want people to like them. Intelligence is not an indicator of effective negotiation skills.

Mood and emotion can impact negotiations as anger is often an effective tool in distributive bargaining, whereas positive moods are helpful in integrative bargaining situations.

Culture also plays a role in negotiations and the styles utilized. In general, people negotiate more effectively within cultures than between them. For successful cross-cultural negotiations, it is especially important that the negotiators be high in openness and aware of the emotional dynamics.

Gender can also impact negotiation effectiveness. Women may appear more tender in the process where men come across as tough. On the average, men are more likely to initiate negotiations than women.

Negotiating in a Social Context Learning Objective 14.6

Reputation

The way people think and talk about you

Trustworthiness

Competence and integrity

Relationships

What is best for the relationship as a whole

To really understand negotiations in practice, we have to consider the social factors of reputation and relationships.

Reputation is the way people think and talk about you. Having a reputation for being trustworthy matters in negotiations. What characteristics help a person develop a trustworthy reputation? A combination of competence and integrity.

The social, interpersonal component of relationships with repeated negotiations means that individuals go beyond valuing what is simply good for themselves and instead start to think about what is best for the other party and the relationship as a whole.

Third-Party Negotiations Learning Objective 14.7

Basic third party roles:

Mediator: neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning, persuasion, and suggestions for alternatives

Arbitrator: third party to a negotiation who has the authority to dictate an agreement

Conciliator: trusted third party who provides an informal communication link between the negotiator and the opponent

When it’s impossible to reach an agreement through direct negotiations, it may be necessary to turn to a third party to help find a solution. There are three basic third-party roles: mediator, arbitrator, and conciliator.

A mediator is a neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning, persuasion, and suggestions for alternatives. An arbitrator is a third party to a negotiation who has the authority to dictate an agreement. And a conciliator is a trusted third party who provides an informal communication link between the negotiator and the opponent.

Implications for Managers

Choose an authoritarian management style in some situations.

Seek integrative solutions in some situations.

Build trust.

Consider compromise.

Consider the tradeoffs between distributive and integrative bargaining.

Choose an authoritarian management style in emergencies, when unpopular actions need to be implemented, and when the issue is vital to the organization’s welfare.

Seek integrative solutions when your objective is to learn, when you want to merge insights from people with different perspectives, when you need to gain commitment by incorporating concerns into a consensus, or when you need to work through feelings that have interfered with a relationship.

Build trust by accommodating others when you find you’re wrong, you need to demonstrate reasonableness, other positions need to be heard, issues are more important to others than to yourself, you want to satisfy others and maintain cooperation, you can build social credits for later issues, to minimize loss when you are outmatched and losing, or when employees should learn from their mistakes.

Consider compromising when goals are important but not worth potential disruption, opponents with equal power are committed to mutually exclusive goals, or you need temporary settlements to complex issues.

Distributive bargaining can resolve disputes, but it often reduces the satisfaction of one or more negotiators because it’s confrontational and focused on the short term. Integrative bargaining tends to provide outcomes that satisfy all parties and build lasting relationships.

Discussion Questions

Identify a local job opening. Discuss the salary negotiation process that could result in a higher offer.

Discuss an example of a process conflict that devolved into a dysfunctional relationship conflict. How could that have been avoided?

This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it should never be made available to students except by instructors using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these materials.

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Pauline has been asked to reorganize her department, eliminating at least two people within the office. Pauline has strong personal relationships with everyone in her offi

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