Compare and contrast with the current U.S. healthcare system & Canada What is the main focus of the policy standard in this (chosen) country?
Compare and contrast with the current U.S. healthcare system & Canada
What is the main focus of the policy standard in this (chosen) country?
- What are the similarities to the U.S. healthcare system?
- Governance
- Workforce
- Leadership
- Quality
- How does the U.S. healthcare system differ in terms of policy?
- Where do you foresee the U.S. healthcare system in the future (long-/short- term)? (Review from one of the the following perspectives: the provider, the patient, or other stakeholders)
- Summarize the meaning of universality in U.S. health policy versus your chosen country. (Include your research on the future of the U.S. healthcare system)
Chapter 4 Where Do We Want to Be?
Chapter 4
Where Do We Want to Be?
Even in a country that lacks an overall, cohesive health policy, it is useful to ask: How unhappy are we with our health care, and what do we want to change? Do not expect consistent responses from the American public. When the nation was debating the Clinton health plan, a number of organizations surveyed the public. Respondents reported they believed that the health care system was in trouble. At the same time, they expressed satisfaction with their own largely employer-financed health care programs. Public support for universal coverage was strong, but individuals did not want to pay higher taxes to support it (Peterson, 1995). An ABC New/Washington Post poll in October 1993 showed the following (Schick, 1995):
• 51% of the public favored the Clinton health plan.
• 59% thought that it was better than the existing system.
• Only 19% thought that their care would get better under it, and 34% thought worse care would result.
• However, 57% were against tax increases to pay for it, whereas 40% would be willing to pay.
The American public also appears to be split over the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) as a whole. Data about opposition to the act can be misleading, with a significant portion of opposition coming from people who believe the ACA did not go far enough. They would prefer a public option, for example, or a single-payer system. Overall, the public is
negative about the individual mandate and the employer mandate, but is much in favor of the insurance changes that have been implemented. People are confused about the insurance exchange provisions of the act as well. An April 2013 tracking poll found that “about half the public says they do not have enough information about the health reform law to understand how it will impact their own family, a share that rises among the uninsured and low-income households” (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2013). The same poll reported that 42% of respondents did not know that the ACA was still the law of the land. Twelve percent believed it had been repealed by Congress, 7% believed it had been overturned by the Supreme Court, and 23% didn’t know whether it was still in effect or not.
Americans report being in good health more than any other OECD country. Their complaints are mostly about financial risks and to some extent access and waiting. A 2010 study of six developed countries showed that Americans were satisfied with their doctors and the availability of effective care, but were also more likely to report that the system needed to be completely rebuilt (Papanicolas, Cylus, & Smith, 2013).
4.1 Alignment with the Rest of Society
4.1 ALIGNMENT WITH THE REST OF SOCIETY
The democratic process is likely to generate many policy experiments as we cope with advancing technology, changing demographics, political pressures, and economic fluctuations. These experiments will continue to stir debate about the merits of the many delivery and payment alternatives available in the United States and elsewhere.
For professionals in leadership positions, this is an unpleasant reality that makes it much harder to plan and implement any institutional strategy. Even the most prestigious institutions are affected by these external drivers. For example, the Finnish national orthopedic hospital, the Orton Hospital in Helsinki, had to downsize and reach out to private-pay individuals when the Finnish federal government chose to decentralize its jointly financed government health care program and pass administration on to local governments (Masalin, 1994). These local governments then attempted to control the rising cost of health care by reducing referrals to central specialized hospitals. Orton Hospital was a national resource of high-quality care, but as the referral patterns of the country changed, it, too, had to change the way it functioned in order to survive.
There is no universal, monolithic “we” when it comes health policy. There are interest groups, each of which has a central point of view. Within each group are many individuals with some diversity of views. They may be willing to compromise on some issues, but not on others. In the United States, much progressive legislation has been built by reaching agreement on means rather than on ends.
What Do Providers Want?
Providers are aware of their responsibility to act in the best interests of their patients. They are also inculcated with the “first do no harm” dictum. Even among the “disinterested” parties, some care most about individuals, whereas others focus on populations. This is often a vexing problem for those clinicians who, although committed to the needs of individual patients, are also trained in statistical thinking and population-based approaches.
Provider professionals want professional autonomy, income stability and growth comparable with their peers, successful outcomes for their patients, a sense of mastery of their field, and the respect of the public. They know that they will make some mistakes, but they will work very hard to avoid them. They do not want to put their careers on the line with every decision. They do not want to waste energy on bureaucratic exercises that consume resources and distract them from effective care. They also would like to see provisions to pay for care for the uninsured. They are aware that these individuals often forgo normal care and may end up later with more serious and costly problems. That is why some hospitals and health maintenance organizations (HMOs) have strongly endorsed state plans to cover the uninsured, even when they involve adding a tax on their charges to paying patients.
The American Nurses Association (ANA) has expressed some of these desires in its Bill of Rights for Registered Nurses (ANA, 2014). It addresses not only working conditions for nurses but also the right to provide “services that maintain respect for human dignity and embrace the uniqueness of each patient and the nature of his or her health problems, without restriction with regard to social or economic status.” The document says nurses must have the ability to meet their obligations to society and their patients, as well as meet their own needs. In addition, they have a right to workplaces that allow them to meet professional standards, act within their scope of practice, perform their duties in accordance with the ANA code of ethics, advocate for themselves as well as their patients, be safe, keep their patients safe, and negotiate their conditions of employment.
Professional Autonomy
The professional mystique of physicians in the past rested on their control of information. Those who favor a consumer-centric, free-market approach to health care decision making want to maximize the amount of information available to consumers. This has led many physicians to argue for privacy in the conduct of their practices, often in the name of protection of business secrets and personal privacy. Many physicians object, for example, to the fact that a drug company’s local sales representative has data on their prescribing behaviors (Saul, 2006). Insurers certainly profile physicians and institutions for costs and outcomes regularly, and aggregated data are increasingly available to employers, the National Committee for Quality Assurance (NCQA), the Joint Commission, the federal government, and the general public. The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) released physician Medicaid income data in 2014.
Employer representatives want more information to be available to consumers. One thorny issue is information on individual physicians. President George W. Bush called for “transparency in the marketplace” and urged private insurers to disclose data on physician costs and outcomes; however, when the Business Roundtable called on the federal government to make its Medicare databases available, his administration cited a 1979 court ruling protecting the privacy of physicians and prohibiting disclosure of Medicare payments to individual physicians (Pear, 2006).
This is a difficult area. Professionals, like other businesspeople, have some rights to privacy and protections from the prying eyes of competitors, but some observers see the current tensions as the last gasp of a professional monopoly and an attempt to withhold information that bolsters purchaser sovereignty at all levels. Yet the public has difficulty interpreting this information effectively. Current techniques for evaluating case mix and adjusting for risk are crude at best. Measuring the outputs of medical interventions is difficult unless one knows that the inputs are comparable or unless there is a way to adjust the data to reflect differences in inputs, especially the condition of the patient going in.
Other professions fight to overcome the dominance of physicians. In many countries, pharmacists are freer to dispense independently. Nurse practitioners and midwives have fought state by state for the right to practice independently. Psychologists have been fighting some of the same battles with respect to prescribing for the mentally ill, and more and more types of counselors want to be able to bill Medicare, Medicaid, and private insurance.
What Do Patients and Their Families Want?
Patients want to beat the odds. They and their families want the best possible outcomes, and they want to know that everything possible was done to ensure recovery (or a comfortable death) for their loved ones. Some want miracles. All want respect and caring. Most know that they need experts to look after their interests, but still want to be kept informed of what is going on so they can make sense of what is happening and avoid serious medical errors. Again, the issues are complex. Patients and families want to have access to quality information if they have the time and energy to make their own decisions. At the same time, they employ the provider as their agent, and the sicker they are, the more they tend rely on the clinician’s judgment.
When they are not terribly sick, they also worry about the cost of their care. They do not want to spend a lot of time in the waiting room or figuring out how to fill out paperwork. That is a nonmonetary cost, but a cost to them, nevertheless. It can also be a monetary cost if they lose work hours or reimbursement opportunities because of it.
They want to know that they were not treated unfairly by any part of the health care system and that their treatment was not affected by their gender, their ethnicity, or the color of their skin. They would like to think that it was not affected by the capacity of their pocketbooks, but probably believe that to be a bit unrealistic.
They also become apprehensive when they believe that profitability concerns or payment mechanisms are influencing which treatments they receive. An example has been the debate over whether the drugs chosen by oncologists for outpatient treatment have been chosen for their effectiveness or their profitability (Abelson, 2006a; Jacobson et al., 2006). Increasingly, patients are aware of the financial incentives affecting providers that in the long run can undermine provider legitimacy (Schlesinger, 2002).
Before passage and early implementation of the ACA, a strong concern of individuals was that they did not want to be denied insurance on the basis of prior medical conditions over which they had little or no control. The ACA specifically prohibits denial of coverage because of preexisting conditions. This provision became effective at the start of 2014.
Some individuals, particularly those sometimes referred to as the “young immortals,” have been willing to “go bare” (not carry health insurance) if they perceive a relatively low probability of a significantly costly health care event. This has raised the issue of free riders getting emergency care, even though they are not making provision for paying for it ahead of time. This is part of the impetus for the ACA mandate that all individuals obtain health insurance or pay an income tax penalty. An even thornier problem has been the moral hazard of those who knowingly indulge in high-risk behaviors for which the general public has had to pick up a share of the costs. The primary rationale for mandatory helmet laws, for example, was not to protect motorcyclists; it was to shelter the public from incurring the tremendous ongoing costs of caring for people with serious brain damage.
Individuals also worry about being bankrupted when they have insufficient insurance coverage for current and future situations. The ACA has dealt with this is a number of ways, including barring lifetime caps on claims. Yet consumers also worry about what the premium costs will do to their disposable income. Again, the ACA tries to deal with that by subsidizing the premiums of low-income workers.
What Do Insurers Want?
Insurers want to stay in business. That is why they fought so hard against any hint of a single-payer system and against the Obama administration proposal for a government health plan that would appear in the exchanges alongside the existing product lines (the public option).
Insurers want to be free to play the odds. They want to be able to make an acceptable level of net revenue whether they are a for-profit or a non-profit organization. They want to be able to compete in the marketplace on a “level playing field.” Their customers are the payers—the employers and the group and individual enrollees—and they want to maintain a good reputation with them. In the world of HMOs and preferred provider organizations (PPOs), insurers want the biggest possible discounts from providers to keep their medical loss ratios competitive.
Insurers also want to avoid adverse selection. They want protection against having those who know they have a higher-than-average probability of a claim from joining their system in disproportionate numbers. They also want to be able to attract those with a below-average probability of a claim. They do not want to be in a situation in which they are disadvantaged vis-à-vis other insurers. They would like to continue to compete on marketing skills, on underwriting ability, on investment returns on their reserves, and on their operating efficiencies.
Insurers, however, are very sensitive to market shifts. For example, many are currently developing new insurance products for individuals and small groups as the notion of consumer-oriented care and insurance exchanges increase consumer involvement in choosing products (and as employers reduce their contributions and coverage). They suddenly seem interested in individual subscribers that they ignored a few years ago. They are also interested in offering self-insurance plans to the small employers that they ignored previously.
What Do Employers Want?
Employers want to be able to recruit and retain competent, productive employees, and they want competitive cost structures. They are not in the health care purchasing business for any other reason. They are generally supportive of consumer-driven health care that allows individual consumers, rather than employers, insurers, or provider organizations, to make more decisions than in the past. This effectively shifts more of the costs onto the employees and from the lowest paid employees onto Medicaid. With the exchanges and the play-or-pay provisions of the ACA, they have many more options to consider, and it will be interesting to see what options they gravitate toward and for how long. Because the ACA’s employer contribution provisions apply to employers with 50 or more full-time employees, and full time has been defined as an average of 30 hours per week or at least 130 hours in a month, employers may choose to reduce the hours of workers to below 30 hours per week to keep their employee head count below that threshold.
Large Employers and Unions
In unionized firms, premium payments are set through collective bargaining between the company and the union. This bargaining can expand or contract the health care benefits, depending on the wants and needs of the employer and key groups within the union. After a period during which many of our bitterest strikes were waged over health benefit issues, both sides are now recognizing that employment-related health care costs can reduce domestic employment by encouraging companies to shift production to other countries. Employers are rapidly limiting their liabilities to specific dollar contributions toward health care for employees and retirees. Large firms and their unions are increasingly aligned in their desire to hold down costs and maintain coverage.
Small Employers
Because health care insurance bargaining power can be increased by pooling large numbers of beneficiaries, and because administrative costs and insurance prices are very sensitive to the number of individuals covered, small businesses find it hard to provide competitive health benefits to their workers. They need either subsidies or effective ways of pooling their people with others to make a viable enrollee population. Accomplishing this has been a major thrust of the ACA, which includes premium subsidies for small firms.
What Do Governments Want?
They want a satisfied public. They want health care expenditures to be predictable and at a level that does not disadvantage economic growth in both domestic and international competition. The system should work within the parameters of accepted cultural norms of equity and fairness so it does not foment unnecessary voter dissatisfaction. All levels of government want to keep costs down to avoid c
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