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S I X T H E D I T I O N

Juvenile Delinquency C A U S E S A N D C O N T R O L

ROBERT AGNEW EMORY UNIVERSIT Y

TIMOTHY BREZINA GEORGIA S TATE UNIVERSIT Y

New York Oxford OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

CIP data on file with Library of Congress ISBN: 9780190641610

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iii

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Contents

An Important Message for Instructors xvi An Overview of This Book xx Acknowledgments xxii

P A R T 1

The Nature and Extent of Delinquency 1

1 What Is Delinquency and How Does It Differ from Adult Crime? 3 Juvenile Delinquents Are Viewed Differently than Adult Criminals 4 Juvenile Delinquents Are Treated Differently than Adult Criminals 6

Special Laws for Juveniles: Status Offenses 6 A Special Court for Juveniles: Juvenile Court 7 Special Correctional Programs for Juveniles 9

How Can We Explain the Invention of Juvenile Delinquency? 10 Changing Conception of Children 11 Major Social Changes, Especially the Growth of Urban Slums 11 Gender, Race, and the Invention of Delinquency 13

Our View and Treatment of Juvenile Offenders Continues to Evolve 14 “Getting Tough” with Juvenile Offenders (Late 1980s

Through the Early 2000s) 14 Retreating from the Get-Tough Approach (Since the Early 2000s) 17

Summary 20 Teaching Aids 20

Web-Based Exercises 20 Controversial Case 21 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 22 Thought and Discussion Questions 23 Key Terms 23 Endnotes 23

2 How Is Delinquency Measured? 25 Official Statistics—Especially Arrest Data from the Police 26

Problems with Arrest Data 29 Summary 32

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iv Contents

Self-Report Data 33 How Do We Know that Juveniles Are Telling the Truth? 33

Problems with Many Self-Report Surveys 35 Recent Self-Report Surveys Have Made Much Progress

in Overcoming the Preceding Problems 37 Victimization Data 38

Problems with Victimization Data 39 Summary 40 Teaching Aids 40

A Challenge 40 Practical Advice: Three Things to Beware of When Others Discuss

the Extent of and Trends in Delinquency (and a Challenge) 41 Web-Based Exercise: Measuring the Extent of Rape 42 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 42 Thought and Discussion Questions 43 Key Terms 43 Answers to the Challenge 43 Endnotes 44

3 How Much Delinquency Is There, and Is Delinquency Increasing? 45 How Much Delinquency Is There? 46

How Many Juveniles Are Arrested, and What Are They Arrested For? 46 How Much Self-Reported Delinquency Is There? 48 How Many Juveniles Are Victimized, and How Many

Victimizations Are Committed by Juveniles? 51 Summary 53

Is Juvenile Delinquency Increasing? 53 Are Juvenile Arrests Increasing? 55 Is Self-Reported Delinquency Increasing? 58 Are Victimizations Committed by Juveniles Increasing? 60 Summary 60

How Can We Explain the Dramatic Decline in Serious Crime Since the Mid-1990s? 62

Teaching Aids 64 Exercise: The Extent of and Trends in Campus Crime 64 Web-Based Exercise: Finding the Latest Information

on the Extent of and Trends in Crime and Delinquency 64 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 66 Thought and Discussion Questions 66 Key Terms 67 Endnotes 67

4 Who Is Most Likely to Engage in Delinquency? 68 Is Social Class Related to Delinquency? 69

Early Studies Based on Arrest Data 70 Early Self-Report Studies 70 Criticisms of the Early Self-Report Studies 71

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Contents v

The Later Self-Report Studies 74 Summary 76

Are Race and Ethnicity Related to Delinquency? 76 Arrest Data 76 Criticisms of Arrest Data 77 Self-Report Data 77 Victimization Data 78 Is Race Related to Delinquency? 79 Are Race Differences in Serious Delinquency Explained by Social Class? 79

Is Age Related to Delinquency? 80 Is Gender Related to Delinquency? 82

Arrest Data 83 Self-Report Data 84 Summary 85

Are There Different Types of Delinquents? 85 An Overview of the Research on the Different Types of Delinquents 86 What Are the Different Types of Delinquents? 88

Summary 89 Teaching Aids 89

Exercise 1: Perceptions of Race and Crime 89 Exercise 2: Why Do Asian Americans Have Lower Crime Rates? 90 Exercise 3: Explaining the Association Between Gender and Crime 90 Exercise 4: Girls’ Delinquency 91 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 91 Thought and Discussion Questions 92 Key Terms 93 Endnotes 93

P A R T 2

The Causes of Delinquency: Theories 95

5 What Is a Theory and How Do We Test Theories? 97 What Is a Theory? 98

What Are the Basic Parts of a Theory? 98 Why Is It Important to Study Theories of Delinquency? 99

How Do We Test Theories of Delinquency (or Determine Whether Some Factor Causes Delinquency)? 99

The Scientific Method 100 Carefully Define Your Independent and Dependent Variables 100 Decide How to Gather Data to Test Your Belief or Theory 101 Develop Measures of Your Independent and Dependent Variables 103 Select a Sample of Juveniles to Survey 104 Analyze the Data You Have Collected 105

Summary 110 Teaching Aids 110

Some Challenges 110 Web-Based Resources for Your Criminological Research Project 111

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vi Contents

Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 112 Thought and Discussion Questions 112 Key Terms 113 Answers to the Challenges 113 Endnote 114

6 Strain Theory 115 What Are the Major Types of Strain? 117

The Failure to Achieve Your Goals 117 Loss of Positive Stimuli/Presentation of Negative Stimuli 121

What Impact Does Strain Have on the Juvenile? 123 Why Are Some Juveniles More Likely to Cope with Strain

Through Delinquency? 125 Summary 126 Teaching Aids 126

Case Studies 126 Web-Based Exercise: Applying Strain Theory 128 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 128 Thought and Discussion Questions 129 Key Terms 129 Endnotes 129

7 Social Learning Theory 131 Juveniles Learn to Engage in Delinquency from Others 133

The Differential Reinforcement of Delinquency 133 The Frequency, Amount, and Relative Probability of Reinforcement 134 Positive and Negative Reinforcement 134 Punishment 134 The Sources of Reinforcement and Punishment 135 Some Individuals Are More Likely to Be

Reinforced for Delinquency than Others 135 Intermittent Reinforcement 137 Discriminative Stimuli 137 Research on the Reinforcement and Punishment of Delinquency 138

Beliefs Favorable to Delinquency 138 Generally Approve of Minor Delinquency 139 Conditionally Approve of Delinquency, Including

Some Serious Delinquency 139 General Values Conducive to Delinquency 140 Where Do the Beliefs Favorable to Delinquency Come From? 141

The Imitation of Delinquent Models 141 Summary 144 Teaching Aids 144

Controversial Cases 144 Web-Based Exercise: Learning to Hate 146 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 147 Thought and Discussion Questions 147

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Contents vii

Key Terms 148 Endnotes 148

8 Control Theory 149 Why Do Juveniles Conform (and Sometimes Deviate)? 150

How Is Control Theory Similar to and Different from Social Learning Theory? 151

What Are the Major Types of Control (or Restraints to Delinquency)? 152

Direct Control 153 Stake in Conformity 155 Belief 157 Self-Control 159

Summary 160 Teaching Aids 161

Controversial Issue: The Nature of Human Nature 161 Controversial Methods for Increasing Direct Control 162 Web-Based Exercise: Where Do Theories Come From? 163 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 163 Thought and Discussion Questions 164 Key Terms 164 Endnotes 164

9 Labeling Theory 166 Background on Labeling Theory 168 How Do Others React to the Juvenile’s Delinquency? 169

Harsh/Rejecting Reaction 169 Failure to Respond to the Juvenile’s Delinquency 171 “Condemn the Delinquency but Accept the Juvenile” Reaction 172 Summary 173

Why Does the Harsh/Rejecting Reaction Lead to Further Delinquency? 173 Reduces Control 173 Increases Strain 174 Increases the Social Learning of Delinquency 174 Creates a Delinquent Self-Concept 175

What Determines Whether Juveniles Experience the Harsh/Rejecting Reaction? 175

Are Some Juveniles More Likely than Others to Respond to the Harsh/Rejecting Reaction with Further Delinquency? 179

The Evidence on Labeling Theory 180 Summary 182 Teaching Aids 183

Controversial Issue #1: Going Too Far? Zero-Tolerance Policies in the Nation’s Schools 183

Controversial Issue #2: Is It Sometimes Best to Ignore Delinquency? 184 Web-Based Exercise: Applying Labeling Theory (Race and Labeling) 184 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 185

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viii Contents

Thought and Discussion Questions 185 Key Terms 186 Endnotes 186

10 The Life Course 187 Why Do Most Individuals Increase Their Levels of Offending During

Adolescence? 189 The Biological and Social Changes Associated with Adolescence 189 A Reduction in Control 190 An Increase in the Social Learning for Crime 191 An Increase in Strain 191 Summary 192

Why Do a Small Percentage of Individuals Offend at High Rates over Much of Their Lives? 192

Traits Conducive to Crime 195 Poor Parenting 195 High Rates of Offending over the Life Course 196 Summary 196

Summary 197 Teaching Aids 197

Web-Based Exercise: Comparing Adult and Juvenile Offenders 197 Controversial Issue: An Evolutionary Theory of Adolescence-Limited

Offending 197 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 199 Thought and Discussion Questions 199 Key Terms 199 Endnotes 199

11 Is Delinquency More Likely in Certain Types of Situations? 201 What Types of Situations Are Most Conducive to Delinquency? 202

Strain Theory: Situational Strains 203 Strain Theory: Situational Factors that Increase the Likelihood of Delinquent

Coping 204 Social Learning and Control Theories:

The Benefits and Costs of Delinquency 205 Attractive Targets 206 The Absence of Capable Guardians 208 The Presence of Delinquent Peers 208 Summary 208

What Factors Influence the Likelihood that Predisposed Offenders Will Encounter Situations Conducive to Delinquency? 209

The Nature of the Individual’s Routine Activities 210 Factors Influencing Routine Activities 211 Summary 212

Summary 212 Teaching Aids 212

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Contents ix

Applying the Research: Examining the Routine Activities of College Students 212

Web-Based Exercise: Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design 213

Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 213 Thought and Discussion Questions 214 Key Terms 214 Endnotes 214

12 Group Differences in Delinquency 215 Why Are Crime Rates Higher in Some Communities than in Others? 216 What Are the Characteristics of High-Crime Neighborhoods and Cities? 217

Summary 219 Are Communities with Characteristics Conducive to

Crime Becoming More Common? 219 Why Are Deprived Communities Higher in Crime? 223

Deprived Communities Are Higher in Strain 223 Deprived Communities Are Lower in Control 225 Deprived Communities Foster the Social Learning of Crime 227 Community Crime Rates Reduce Control, Foster the

Social Learning of Crime, and Increase Strain 229 Overview of the Leading Theories of Delinquency 230 Teaching Aids 231

Exercise: Increasing Community Control 231 Exercise: Explaining Other Group Differences in Crime 232 Web-Based Exercise: Societal Differences in Crime and Delinquency 232 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 233 Thought and Discussion Questions 234 Key Terms 234 Endnotes 234

P A R T 3

The Causes of Delinquency: Research 237

13 Individual Traits 241 Are Juveniles with Certain Traits More Likely to Engage in Delinquency? 242

Low Verbal IQ 243 Low Self-Control 243 Irritability 244 Summary 245

Why Are Some Individuals More Likely than Others to Possess These Traits? 245

Biological Influences on Traits 245 Environmental Influences on Traits 248

Is Mental Illness Related to Violence? 250 Summary 252

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x Contents

Teaching Aids 252 Controversial Issue: Should Delinquents

Be Held Responsible for Their Behavior? 252 Web-Based Exercise: Programs for Mentally Ill Offenders 253 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 253 Thought and Discussion Questions 254 Key Terms 254 Endnotes 254

14 The Family 256 The Effect of the Family on Delinquency 257 Family Structure 258

Are Juveniles from Single-Parent Homes More Delinquent? 258 Does the Mother’s Employment Outside the Home Increase Delinquency? 259 Does Placing Juveniles in Childcare Facilities Increase the Likelihood of

Delinquency? 260 Are Teenage Parents More Likely to Have Delinquent Children? 261 Are Juveniles from Large Families More Delinquent? 261

Parental and Sibling Crime/Deviance 262 Are Juveniles with Criminal or Deviant Parents and Siblings More Likely to Be

Delinquent? 262 The Quality of Family Relationships 263

Are Juveniles Who Have Warm or Close Relationships with Their Parents Less Delinquent? 263

Parental Socialization 265 What Should Parents Do to Teach Their Children to Avoid Delinquency? 265 What Should Parents Do to Teach Their Children to Engage in Conventional

Behavior? 268 Summary 269

Why Do Some Parents Employ Poor Parenting Practices? 269 A Note on Genes, Parenting, and Delinquency 270

Teaching Aids 271 Exercise: Putting Your Knowledge to Use 271 Web-Based Exercise: An Inside Look at a Troubled Family 271 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 271 Thought and Discussion Questions 272 Key Terms 272 Endnotes 273

15 The School 275 What School Experiences Contribute to Delinquency? 276

Do School Experiences Cause Delinquency? 277 Why Do Some Juveniles Have Negative School Experiences? 278

School Characteristics and Delinquency 279 How Much Delinquency Occurs at School? 279 How Can We Explain School Differences in Delinquency? 283

Teaching Aids 285 Applying Theories and Research 285

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Contents xi

Web-Based Exercise: More Information on School Violence, Including Bullying 286

Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 286 Thought and Discussion Questions 287 Key Terms 287 Endnotes 287

16 Delinquent Peers and Gangs 289 What Impact Do Delinquent Peers Have on Delinquency? 290

Under What Conditions Are Delinquent Peers Most Likely to Cause Delinquency? 291

What Are Delinquent Peer Groups Like? 292 Why Are Individuals in Delinquent Groups More Likely to Engage in

Delinquency? 293 Why Are Some Juveniles More Likely than Others to Get Involved with

Delinquent Peers? 294 What Impact Do Gangs Have on Delinquency? 295

What Is a Street Gang? 295 How Common Are Gangs? 296 Are Gangs Becoming More Common? 296 What Effect Do Gangs Have on Crime and Delinquency? 297 What Are the Characteristics of Gang Members? 299 How Are Gangs Organized or Structured? 300 What Are Female Gangs Like? 300 Why Do Some Juveniles Join Gangs? 301 Why Do Some Communities Develop Gangs? 304 How Can We Explain Long-Term Trends in Gang Activity? 304

Summary 306 Teaching Aids 306

Controversial Issue: What Is a Gang? 306 Web-Based Exercise: An Examination of Two Major Gangs 306 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 307 Thought and Discussion Questions 308 Key Terms 308 Endnotes 308

17 Other Social Influences 311 Does Religion Reduce Delinquency? 312

The Evidence 313 Does Work Reduce Delinquency Among Juveniles

Attending School? 314 The Evidence 314

Does Mass Media Violence Cause Violence Among Juveniles? 315 TV and Movie Violence 315 Violent Video Games 317 Music with Violent Themes 318 Does Media Violence Affect Some Juveniles More than Others? 319 Summary 319

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xii Contents

Does Social Media Engagement Increase the Risk of Delinquent Behavior? 321 The Evidence 322 Summary 323

Do Drugs Increase the Likelihood of Delinquency? 324 Reasons that Drugs May Affect Delinquency 324 The Evidence 327

Do Guns Increase the Likelihood of Delinquency? 327 How Common Is Gun Ownership and Possession Among Juveniles? 328 Do Guns Contribute to Delinquency? 330 Do Guns Prevent More Crime than They Contribute To? 332

Summary 333 Teaching Aids 333

Controversial Issue: Should Marijuana Be Legalized? 333 Web-Based Exercise: Guns Across the Globe 335 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 335 Thought and Discussion Questions 336 Endnotes 336

18 Pulling It All Together 339 A Brief Review of the Theories and Research on the Causes of Delinquency 341

Theories 341 Research 342

A General Theory of Delinquency 343 The Major Direct Causes of Delinquency and Why They Cause It 343 How All These Clusters Are Related 344 How Biological Factors and the Larger Social

Environment Affect the Clusters 345 Explaining Group Differences In Delinquency 347

Using the General Theory to Explain Why Males Have Higher Rates of Delinquency than Females 347

The Special Role of Sexual Abuse in Explaining Serious Female Offending 349 An Overview of the General Theory of Delinquency 349 Teaching Aids 349

Web-Based Exercise: Applying the General Theory 349 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 350 Thought and Discussion Questions 350 Key Terms 351 Endnotes 351

P A R T 4

The Control and Prevention of Delinquency 353

19 Policies and Programs 357 The Experimental Model for Determining Program Effectiveness 358

The Importance of Doing Randomized Experiments 361 Problems in Doing Randomized Experiments 363

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Contents xiii

What If One Is Not Able to Do a Randomized Experiment? 364 Why Are Some Programs Ineffective at Reducing Delinquency? 365 Summary 366 Teaching Aids 366

Web-Based Exercise: The Importance (and Sometimes Neglect) of Good Evaluation Research 366

Some Challenges 367 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 367 Thought and Discussion Questions 368 Key Terms 368 Answers to Challenges 368 Endnote 369

20 The Police 370 How Do the Police Operate? 371

Preventive Patrol Is the Major Type of Policing 371 The Police Spend Only a Small Amount of Their Time Dealing with

Crime 372 Policing Is Primarily Reactive in Nature 372 When the Police Do Discover or Hear About a Crime, They Usually Do Not

Catch the Offender 372 If the Police Do Catch a Suspect, They Usually Do Not Arrest the Person 373

How Effective Is Preventive Patrol? 374 How Can the Police Increase Their Effectiveness? 374

Will Hiring More Police Reduce Delinquency? 374 Will Police Crackdowns Reduce Delinquency? 375 Will Community Policing Reduce Delinquency? 380

Summary 385 Teaching Aids 386

Web-Based Exercises 386 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 387 Thought and Discussion Questions 388 Key Terms 388 Endnotes 388

21 Juvenile Court and Corrections 390 What Happens When Juveniles Are Sent to Juvenile Court? 391

What Are the Major Goals of Juvenile Court? 391 How Many Cases Does Juvenile Court Handle, and What Types Does the

Court Deal With? 392 What Are the Major Stages in the Juvenile Court Process? 393

Juvenile Corrections: What Happens to Juveniles Who Receive a Disposition or Sentence from the Court? 401

Formal Probation 401 Intermediate Sanctions 402 A Renewed Focus on Rehabilitation 403 Out-of-Home Placements 404 Aftercare Services 411

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An Overview of the Juvenile Justice Process 412 Teaching Aids 413

Controversial Issue 413 Web-Based Resources and Activities 413 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 414 Thought and Discussion Questions 415 Key Terms 415 Endnotes 416

22 The Juvenile Justice System 417 Does the Juvenile Justice System Discriminate Against

African Americans? 419 The Extent of Discrimination Varies Across Police

Departments and Juvenile Courts 420 The Extent of Discrimination May Vary by Type of Crime 421 Small Amounts of Discrimination at Different Points in the Juvenile Justice

Process Can Have a Large Overall Effect 421 Racial Discrimination May Be Direct or Indirect 421 What Can Be Done to Address the Overrepresentation of Minorities in the

Juvenile Justice System? 422 Does the Juvenile Justice System Discriminate Against the Poor and

Against Males or Females? 425 Summary 426 Teaching Aids 426

Controversial Issue 426 Race and Experiences with the Police 426 Web-Based Exercise: The Disproportionate Minority Contact Initiative 427 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 427 Thought and Discussion Questions 428 Key Terms 428 Endnotes 429

23 The Strategies of Deterrence and Incapacitation 430 Are the Juvenile Court and Correctional System Tough Enough in Dealing with

Offenders, Especially Serious Offenders? 432 Efforts to Get Tough with Serious Offenders 433

Some Get-Tough Measures 434 How Effective Are Get-Tough Measures, and What Can Be Done to Increase Their

Effectiveness? 436 Deterrence 436 Specific Deterrence 436 General Deterrence 440 Incapacitation: Will Locking Up Delinquents Reduce Delinquency? 443

Summary 449 Teaching Aids 450

Controversial Issue: Life Without Parole for Juvenile Offenders? 450 Web-Based Exercise: Restorative Justice in Practice 451 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 451

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Thought and Discussion Questions 452 Key Terms 452 Endnotes 453

24 The Strategies of Prevention and Rehabilitation 454 A Brief History of Prevention and Rehabilitation 456 How Effective Are Prevention and Rehabilitation Programs? 458

General Characteristics of Effective Prevention and Rehabilitation Programs 458

What Are the Characteristics of Successful Prevention/Rehabilitation Programs in Different Areas? 462

Programs Focusing on the Early Family Environment 462 Parent Training Programs 464 Programs Focusing on School Factors 466 Programs Focusing on Individual Traits 468 Programs Focusing on Delinquent Peers and Gangs 470

Selected Other Prevention and Rehabilitation Programs 473 The Critical Role of Larger Social Forces in Preventing Delinquency 475 Summary 477 Teaching Aids 477

Web-Based Exercise: Finding the Latest Information on Programs and Practices for Reducing Delinquency 477

Exercise: Extend Your Knowledge of Rehabilitation and Prevention Programs 478

Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 479 Thought and Discussion Questions 479 Key Terms 480 Endnotes 480

25 What Should We Do to Reduce Delinquency? 483 We Should Place More Emphasis on Prevention and Rehabilitation 484

We Should Hold Juveniles Accountable for Their Behavior and Protect the Community 486

Teaching Aids 488 Exercise: What Should We Do to Reduce Delinquency? 488 Web-Based Exercise: Interested in a Career in Criminology/Corrections? 488 Test Your Knowledge of This Chapter 488 Thought and Discussion Questions 488 Endnotes 489

References 490 Photo Credits 593 Author Index 594 Subject Index 604

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Criminologists often complain about the limited impact of their discipline on public perceptions and crime control policy. We believe that a major reason for this lim-ited impact lies with our introductory textbooks. Our texts are perhaps the chief way in which we communicate with the larger community. Yet, with a few notable excep- tions, they do not provide students with a clear sense of what causes delinquency and what can be done to control it. Rather, our texts tend to overwhelm and confuse students. Students get lost in all the theories of delinquency that are presented; they have trouble drawing conclusions from the discussions of empirical research, since contradictory stud- ies are often described, with little effort to sort them; and they are not provided with a good overview of the most promising approaches to delinquency control and prevention. If the readers of such texts were asked to explain why juveniles engage in delinquency or what should be done to control it, we venture to say that most would respond with blank stares or jumbled answers.

This book is very different from most delinquency texts now on the market, and those differences are described next.

MORE FOCUSED The book is more focused than current texts. The dominant texts attempt to cover all the major research on delinquency. This text does not attempt to cover all major areas in the field. Rather, it devotes serious attention to what we consider to be the three major ques- tions in the field: What is the nature and extent of delinquency? What are the causes of delinquency? What strategies should we employ to control delinquency? Students reading this text should be able to give reasonable answers to these questions. We are not sure that this is the case with many current texts.

At the same time, you may feel that this text does not devote adequate attention to certain topics. But the relatively low cost of this text should make it easy for you to cover whatever additional topics you like with supplemental readings. In fact, we encourage this approach. We believe it is important for students to read articles and other books that de- scribe original research and discuss particular issues in detail. There are many wonderful articles and books on delinquency, like Code of the Street by Anderson (1999) and “The Saints and the Roughnecks” by Chambliss (1973). We think it would be unfortunate for students to take a delinquency course without being exposed to these materials. And we believe that this view is becoming more common, as reflected in the increased number of delinquency readers and “companion” texts being offered by publishers.

MORE SYNTHETIC APPROACH TO DELINQUENCY THEORY AND RESEARCH This text differs from most current texts in that it employs a more “synthetic” approach to delinquency theory and research. Most texts spend a great deal of time describing

An Important Message for Instructors

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An Important Message for Instructors xvii

delinquency theories and research but make little effort to synthesize such theory and re- search. For example, they describe (often superficially) the four or five different versions of strain theory that now dominate the literature. They also describe the research on each of these versions of strain theory, noting both supportive and nonsupportive studies. They do not, however, attempt to draw on this theory and research in the interest of developing an up-to-date, comprehensive version of strain theory. Students reading such texts get caught up in trying to memorize all the different versions of strain theory (and other theories) and the mixed evidence on each version. They come away confused and overwhelmed. Unlike virtually all other texts, our text does not describe the different versions of all the major delinquency theories. Rather, we attempt to synthesize the best of the current delinquency theories into a set of four “generic” theories: a strain-based theory, a social learning theory, a control-based theory, and a labeling-based theory. Since these generic theories represent a synthesis of the best of current theory and research, our empirical assessments of them are somewhat more optimistic than those found in other textbooks.

After presenting the four generic theories, we devote several chapters to the major re- search on the causes of delinquency, including the research on individual traits, family fac- tors, school experiences, and delinquent peer groups and gangs. We make a special effort to state, in a clear, concise manner, the major conclusions that can be drawn from these dif- ferent areas of research. At the same time, we make note of problems in the research, and we attempt to sort through contradictory studies where necessary. The final section of the book, Part 4, provides an overview of the police, the juvenile courts, and juvenile correc- tions. It then discusses four general strategies for controlling delinquency: deterrence, in- capacitation, prevention, and rehabilitation. We describe the evidence on the effectiveness of these strategies and discuss ways to increase their effectiveness. While we provide ex- amples of successful programs and policies in these areas, our major focus is on describing the general features of those programs and policies that appear to be the most successful.

Many instructors may object to this synthetic approach, especially as it applies to de- linquency theories. We do not explicitly discuss certain popular theories. The four theories we present, however, dominate …