What is the connection between failed (now referred to as fragile) states and terrorism and other forms of political violenc
Read the articles, "Conceptualising State Collapse: An Institutionalist Approach," by Lambach and Johais (2015), and "Globalization, Terrorism and the State" by Demir and Varlik (2015), which are required reading for this week. Respond to the following:
- What is the connection between failed (now referred to as fragile) states and terrorism and other forms of political violence?
- Provide an example of a failed/fragile state that is associated with terrorism.
- In addition to terrorism and other forms of political violence, what other problems are generally associated with failed/fragile states?
- What can, or should, the international community do to address this issue?
Minimum 250 Words
Minimum 2 sources
APA Guidelines
ALTERNATIVES TURKISH JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS www.alternetivesjournal.net
Globalization, Terrorism and the State
Sertif Demir -Ali Bilgin Varlık
Abstract: The main discussion point of this article is to explore the cause-effect relation between the weakening of nation state and the intensification of global terrorism by the influence of
globalization. The main thesis of the article is that the malign effects of globalization have
considerably weakened nation states or dragged them into a situation in which the security
and stability would no longer be sustained as desired. Global terrorism can stem from the
adverse effects of globalization, imbalance of power, disparity of players, and power
vacuum. Failed states, separatist minorities and radicals use terrorism as warfare in order
to counterbalance the power gap or to consolidate their authority. In order to verify/nullify
the main thesis, we sought answers for three main issues: consequences of globalization;
influence of globalization on terrorism; and lessons learned from terrorism. Our study has
come to a conclusion that the most reliable way to cope with the challenges of the new
form of terrorism is to strengthen the nation state concept in democratic, laic, social and
legal terms.
Key Words: Globalization, nation state, terrorism, global terrorism.
Associated Professor, The University of İzmir, the Department of International Relations,
Assistant Professor, The University of Esenyurt, the Department of Politics Science and International
Relations. He is also strategist at the Institute of 21st Century Turkey, [email protected]|
Sertif Demir & Ali Bilgin Varlık
ALTERNATIVES TURKISH JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS www.alternetivesjournal.net
| 37
Introduction
Hardly few other concepts have been argued or associated with each other as globalization and
terrorism. And hardly few factors other than globalization and terrorism have eroded the states.
During the last two decades and particularly after September 11, 2001 (9/11), terrorism turned into
‘global terrorism’ and emerged as a new form of threat for both national and international security.
Now we have quite a satisfactory literature, which broadens views but helps little to
overcome the issue. This article does not propose any miracle solution to overcome terrorism, which
is not argued before, but makes analyses in order to depict basic principles for handling the issue.
The main thesis of the article is that the malign effects of globalization has considerably
weakened nation states or dragged them into a situation in which the security and stability would no
longer be sustained as desired while promoting terrorism to a global strength. The first
complementary thesis is that there appears to be an interrelated and intermingled structure between
globalization, terrorism and the state. The second complementary thesis is that the nation state, which
was the strongest means to counter global terrorism, is severely influenced by globalization. In other
words, global world cannot overcome global terrorism, while underpinning the nation state. The
spread of globalization considerably weakened nation states. The third complementary thesis is that
terrorism has gained extraordinary power than previously experienced in the contemporary globalized
world. So the main discussion point of this study is to explore the correlation between the weakening
of nation state and the intensification of global terrorism that might result from the spread of
globalization.
In order to verify or nullify the acceptance of the thesis, we tried to answer the following
three questions:
– What are the consequences of globalization from security perspective?
– How did terrorism diversify by the influence of globalization?
– What did we learn from the experience of global terrorism?
Theoretical Framework
Before starting, in order to draw the parameters of level of analysis one needs to underline the
approaches and methodologies, which explain the concept of globalization. The easiest but the worst
is to make an analysis based upon the results of a phenomenon. This approach, while giving the
opportunity to reach direct and practical conclusions, hides the causes and the sources feeding the
problem, which enables to reach true diagnosis for defining the issue. So there is no way to answer
the question except for arguing the concept of globalization.
Theorizing Difficulty
Difficulty of theorizing the concept of globalization steams from two reasons. The first is the trouble
of access to reliable information; the second is the complex nature of the concept.
Concerning with the access to reliable information about globalization, there occur four basic
issues. These are: lack of scientific impartiality, limitation on comprehensiveness, lack of historical
background, and difficulty to make synthesis on a live concept.
Firstly, the information created is not objective and polarized between globalists and
skeptics. 1 Both of these approaches are mostly based on results or reflections of globalization rather
than the causes. So their analysis turns to a cons and pros struggle which helps little for a dialectical
quality of survey.
Globalization, Terrorism and the State
Vol. 14, No. 3, Fall 2015
| 38
Secondly, some surveys which put more emphasis on some aspects of globalization while
underestimating the others turn the analysis to “the blind man’s definition of elephant” 2 .
Thirdly, globalization has been imposed as a de facto notion which explains all today’s and
tomorrow’s world but has hardly few about the past. 3 This approach also conceptualizes the fact on a
shallow basis so the real value cannot be assessed properly.
Finally, on the formation of the concept, still additional arguments emerge while some basic
thesis has already collapsed. This prevents analyzers to make sound decisions on the subject.
As a conclusion, except for determinist approaches which explain globalization with linear
relations, a great majority of analysis agrees with the fact that globalization is multi-dimensional and
complex in nature. Unless each ingredient of the concept is assessed and the interrelationship between
the factors is defined, it will be very challenging to expound the globalization. At this point we will
be content with the affirmation that there is no other complex political system than globalization. 4
Approaches to Globalization
Globalization, in general, can be defined as the free movement of capital, goods, knowledge,
manpower and services among countries due to the increased technological and scientific
improvements and diminished state-centric power. Globalization is the process of integration of
cultures. It comes out of the interaction of people from different cultures and societies. Globalization
is inherently an economic-originated notion. However, currently it has gained a meaning embracing a
political, economical, cultural, sociological and technological formation, which has led to a more
integrated world. Ideologically, it was defined as a new phase of capitalism and interrelated with post-
modernism.
Having considered this amalgam structure and complex and contentious differences, our aim
is to explore the impact of globalization on terror incidents; whether globalization is a catalyzing
factor for the increase of terrorism or not. Thus, we have to focus on delineating this interrelation with
a theoretical support. In this context, approaches on theorizing globalization could be classified
mainly under four titles: 1) novelty, 2) flashback, 3) permanency and 4) transformation. 5
The Novelty approach
Mostly suggested by the neo-liberals, the novelty approach asserts that globalization has a
unique characteristic as a result of innovative forms of technology, global economy, and
communication infrastructure emerged in recent history. Postmodernists also confirm the novelty
approach with their motto that has left reality and modern conceptions behind, as well as the world of
modernity 6 . According to advocates of the novelty approach, with the demise of Cold War era we
experienced the end of history and a new world order. This new world order ignites political,
economical and cultural changes, which have never occurred before. The globalization is the end
point of mankind's ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the
final form of human government. 7 Besides Fukuyama, extremists of this approach consider
globalization as the first form of global civilization. 8
The novelty approach lacks historical consistency and it does not explain the globalization
which takes place in different parts of the world, except for the West. Additionally it does not even
cover the globalization experienced in the social layers of the western world. Furthermore, its
prominent thesis that the world economy had never internationalized before is quite open to
discussion since not verified by historical and economical data. 9 Thus we consider it too deterministic
to explain the hybrid structure of globalization.
Sertif Demir & Ali Bilgin Varlık
ALTERNATIVES TURKISH JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS www.alternetivesjournal.net
| 39
The Flashback approach
Generally supported by radical leftists and some conservatives, the flashback approach
suggests that today’s globalization overlaps with the world order prior to World War I. The collapse
of bipolar international environment has rotated the flow of capital and trade to the level before the
World War I. According to supporters of this approach the world has flashed back to the era of the
ferocious imperialistic competitions, and the contemporary situation under the leadership of US is a
new form of the 18 th and 19
th centuries’ globalization which took place in the lead of UK.
10
The flashback approach repeats the novelty approach’s shortfall on historical consistency, by
disregarding the fact that no social formation could be reiterated. Particularly, conservatives’ attempt
to impose the globalization as a moral value rather than historical phenomena is a major contradiction
with the reality and is too subjective to be scientific. Thus, we consider it too holistic to explain
differences of contemporary globalization.
The Permanency approach
The permanency approach affirms that there have never been sudden drastic changes in the
mankind history, neither has globalization . Globalization is not an unexpected legendary event as
globalists present but, is an operation of nonbelligerent logic of capitalism and geo-economic
imperialism. According to backers of the approach, globalization is the subjective volitional
ideological project of transnational corporations and international finance organizations rather than an
objective reality. 11
Capitalism is a hegemonic global system in nature and sees the world as a whole
economic structure since its evolution. 12
Generally supported by skeptics, the approach suggests that
today’s globalization is not different than the globalization in 1850 and 1910 and limited
geographically with the north hemisphere and functionally with financial markets. 13
Although the permanency approach uses an acceptable historical methodology, and defines
successfully the limits of contemporary globalization, it neither estimates the dramatic and systematic
shift after the big bang of 1970’s and 1980’s globalization nor appropriately reads the importance and
distinctive roles of technology and communication. The approach could also be criticized by being
economically centric.
The transformation approach
The transformation approach mostly supported by social scientists accepts that a historical
shift has been experienced. Transformationists do not reject the notion that historical changes result
from a series of previous events. Accordingly, the globalization process, started at the beginning of
19 th century and stalled by the world wars and the Cold War, has revived as from 1970’s, has been
accelerating and turning to a permanent structure. According to the transformation approach
advocates, world economies and communication systems have established a structure in which
peoples, cultures and states have intermingled throughout the modern times; and recent developments
have shifted us to a new qualitative dimension. In several ways globalization is a new and dramatic
progress as well as being part of a historical process. At the last phase of globalization a new global
way of cooperation has superseded previous center-periphery relationship while an anachronism has
been exacerbating. 14
An Assessment of the Approaches to Globalization from Security Perspective
Contrary to the novelty approach, the transformation approach advocates reject that the nation state
has ended, but maintain that the relationship between the stakeholders of the authority has been
reorganized according to the new world order. They reject the flashback approach’s hypothesis of
“nothing has changed”, but deem globalization as a derivative of the Illumination Age of the Western
World. According to that, globalization is the new realization of modernity concept on social,
Globalization, Terrorism and the State
Vol. 14, No. 3, Fall 2015
| 40
economical, cultural and philosophical dimensions throughout the world. Different than the
permanency approach, they believe that globalization is not only a temporary dictation of the
capitalists but an unavoidable structure which shapes -to some extent commands- today’s world. So,
some measures to be taken could mitigate malign effects while creating opportunities to benefit from
the globalization. On the other hand, as being less holistic than the flashback approach, the
permanency approach provides some useful data for comprehensive assessments on security
perspective of globalization.
After these comparisons, we reach to the conclusion that the comprehensive and the
transformation approaches give relatively more appropriate data to analyze the consequences of
globalization from security perspective than the other too deterministic and more holistic approaches.
Implication of Globalization from Security Perspective
Globalization has a complex and amalgam structure, and has economical, technological, historical,
political, social and other dimensions, and numerous effects on security. Contrary to its advantages,
chances and positive influences, one can hardly comment optimistically on its effects on security,
because of two reasons: The first is its deteriorating influence on nation state’s power; and the second
is its relationship with terrorism.
Deteriorating Influence of Globalization on Nation State’s Power
Consequences of globalization could be summarized basically on two folds; the first is the chaos of
the new world order, which provokes instability; the second is the erosion observed in the nation state
due to globalization. The former is concerned with historical, social, economical, technological,
military and other imbalances moved by the globalization. The latter is a matter of structural,
institutional and processional transformation of the anarchic international environment as well as the
security atmosphere in which dramatic power shifts occurred against monopoly of the state. In other
words, as stated by Keohane and Nye 15
, globalization and economic interdependence has changed
basic parameters of conventional [Westphalian] system of states” to an anarchic environment in
which multiple channels of interdependence between new international actors added to the states.
These two groups of consequences of globalization are related with each other and establish a
complex and hybrid structure.
The Chaos of the New World Order
From historical perspective, globalization has always been a power-based process of the
hegemonic states and capitalism to shape and rule the world. Historically, this power had always been
projected by the West: The first wave of globalization started with the “Exploration of the New
World” and was institutionalized as colonialism during the period of 1480-1750. The second phase
started just before the “Industry Revolution” and was institutionalized as imperialism or new
colonialism during 1750-1914 era. The third phase started 1914, even though hampered by world
wars and their aftermaths; continued with the impulse of multinational corporations’ championship
that started in 1970’s; climbed with the “Communication Revolution” in 1980’s; and reached its peak
with the “New World Order” after Western World’s victory over the East in 1990’s. 16
Social ataxias of globalization include historically rooted philosophical, psychological and
cultural features. Social observations also vary depending on where you are, where you are looking
and the period of time you are observing. From this context, any evaluation made by those who are
not from the leading side of globalization (“unglobalized” and “non-leading globalizers”), the
“struggle of the West with the rest” would be a better term than the “clash of civilizations”.
Sertif Demir & Ali Bilgin Varlık
ALTERNATIVES TURKISH JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS www.alternetivesjournal.net
| 41
Globalization has been imposed as the highest level of civilization and morality by those who are
leading globalization (globalizers) but from unglobalized and non-leading globalizers’ perspective,
that does not drop the tension and bilateral phobias between the cultures and the religions, fostered by
globalization.
From economic perspective, although economically it helps to increase gross global product,
the amount of direct international investments, the role of transnational corporations, liquidity of
capital and global finance, it worsens the gap between rich and poor, and weakens states’ defensive
apparatus to protect national economy and to localize labor force within the national boundaries.
Wealthy nations while preserving their quotas, economic subventions and incentives for their
homeland segments and conducting economic rescue operations for failed allies, belligerently apply
“bitter prescriptions” or “shock therapies” for a “free market economy” on the “liberated” states 17
. So
globalization neither means equality in chances and opportunities nor just and even distribution of
wealth.
Differentiation on production and service, information and military technologies has shifted
social layers, and reduced competitiveness of developing economies. Countries other than those
which are located at the core, are to suffice a peripheric or semi-peripheric location with low profit
and inadequate efficiency at the best or to be ousted from the economic race.
From technological perspective, there is no doubt that globalization promoted humankind to
reach post-industrial layer of technology which is called “Information Age”. The good news that
globalization brought along “democracy of information” is still debatable since information and
knowledge portals are still in the monopoly of some centers, but spoiled information is everywhere.
“Global Village” thesis forwarded by Marshall McLuhan in 1962, still needs to be proved against the
numerous data attesting that basic health, communication, and education technologies are still luxury
in most regions of the world.
Developments in the military technologies, while creating huge gaps between the
conventional forces of the Western World and their potential rivals, have increased desire for
weapons of mass destruction, for using terrorism militarily and for other asymmetric warfare
methods, which violate international law and poses fatal threats to the security of the anti-Western
states.
The Erosion Observed in the Nation State due to Globalization
As noted above, historically globalization has followed three phases. During the first and the
second phases, central authorities always hampered or at least canalized the free trade market flow,
and dominant powers did not want to lose their authority. In the third phase, particularly after the
collapse of bipolar world system, liquidation of capital, financial operations, interventions of
international financial organizations in national economies have either hampered or softened central
authorities’ dictations on economy. The third phase has promoted a less bloodshed type of free trade,
which is backed by organizations, systems and procedures rather than hegemonic states’ hard power.
It is generally accepted that globalization has reduced nation state power. During the last
phase of globalization, it was discussed that nation states would eventually disappear from political
life and new form of power centers will replace them. However, recent developments have not
sufficient evidence to prove that nation state fades as supporters of globalization expected. Instead, it
is argued that the nation state is ‘neither retaining its primacy nor disappearing but becoming
transformed and absorbed into a TNS (Trans-National State) 18
. The emerging TNS is composed of
international institutions like World Bank (WB), International Monetary Fund (IMF) and Bank of
International Settlements (BIS), European Union (EU), World Trade Organization (WTO) and North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Nation states continue to carry out important functions,
but these have been increasingly transnationalized, as macroeconomic policy becomes increasingly
Globalization, Terrorism and the State
Vol. 14, No. 3, Fall 2015
| 42
focused on appropriate fiscal, monetary, trade and investment policies that allow for the
intensification of transnationalization. Thus, welfare and developmental states have been transformed
into neo-liberal states. 19
More than any of its impact, the complex structure of globalization not only has inflated
disparities and contrarieties but also created paradoxical shifts on the parameters of the world system
that we knew. Globalization, while promoting standardization, global affinity, unity and intermingled
interdependency on the one hand, provokes localization, disparity, definition of identities on a smaller
level than nation on the other hand. 20
Influences of globalization have not been unified because of historical, social and economic
diversities throughout the world. For example, while shaping the Western World particularly Europe
as unified not only on value base but in economic and political dimension, globalization had
fragmented some nation states into ethnic and religious factions in the rest of the world. The last wave
of globalization concurrent with the collapse of Iron Curtain helped masses to question not only the
boundaries of state authority and legitimacy of the ruling regimes throughout the world, but also
citizen, women and minority rights. Diffusion of multi-ethnic national states left the ground to ethnic
and religious unities mostly after fierce fightings, atrocities and genocides.
Policies and strategies like “preventive strike”, “crusade”, “just war” and “humanitarian
intervention”, which created polarization among cultures, have not only made arguable the classical
use of force concept accepted by the international law, but also set new processes and procedures
which eroded nation states’ hegemonic power.
New players like anti-globalist or counter-state civil society organizations, NGOs and
GONGOs (Government Oriented/Backed NGOs) loosened previously established firm ties of the
states on the society and shifted anarchic political arena to a more chaotic atmosphere than ever.
Emerging as a new sector of big capitals, the media fastened its position as the forth power -after
legislation, execution, and judiciary- and turned out to be a means of information warfare.
In addition to the negative influences of globalization, almost all positive impacts of
globalization have also deteriorated nation states’ control over society. The erosion within local
cultures and traditional social bonds has underpinned nation state’s authority, while diminishing
mental boundaries and increasing transparency of physical international borders and the importance
of individualism.
So, regardless of being good or bad, globalization has eroded nation sate’s power, and
transformed the international environment into a multi-dimensional and multi-cultural atmosphere in
which nation states are no longer the main determinant actors. Now, we are experiencing a world in
which power could no longer be identified as a linear, hierarchic, state-oriented and state-controlled
phenomenon. This dramatic change on concept of power has transformed the role of the nation state
during the last phase of globalization.
As a result of this assessment we concluded that the new world order in the last phase of
globalization, and its consequences have dramatically changed and weakened nation state’s power
and its control on internal and external policy. 21
The Relationship between Terrorism and Globalization
The linkage between increased terrorist activities and globalization can hardly be proven due to some
difficulties. First, it is difficult to state that globalization is the only driven-factor behind the
outnumbered terrorism. Second, violent methods aiming at political aspirations have existed before
global process. There is no clear-cut finding that delineates or justifies this thesis. However, it can be
Sertif Demir & Ali Bilgin Varlık
ALTERNATIVES TURKISH JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS www.alternetivesjournal.net
| 43
argued that globalism has created some conditions that can trigger the use of violence in order to
realize political aims. As globalization is deemed the culprit of the uneven distribution of wealth,
growth of poverty, de-emphasis of nation states, and regional impoverishment, the violence or use of
power against the globalism can be applied and these acts can be assessed as terror by global factors.
In this case, human security is offered by Alan Miller 22
as a protection against those marginalized by
globalization:
“Security from terror can only be assured if human security is provided for
those marginalized by globalization, and development can only be sustained
if those in the most need are empowered to claim their right to development
and the satisfaction of their rights to an adequate standard of living.”
There are many views regarding the connection between globalism and terrorism. Nassar 23
dissects globalization through the concepts of interdependence, liberalization, universalization,
westernization, and capitalism. He shows the relationship of globalization with violence and advances
a coherent definition of terrorism (that includes actions by governments) based on material reality.
Terrorism is perceived "in a complex political context". Central to the theme is the thesis of "the
migration of dreams" as a consequence of cultural and technological globalization and "the migration
of nightmares" as a consequence of global violence and terrorism. Here, violence is understood in
broad terms: colonialism, transnational corporate exploitation, and the US imperial project are all
faces of violence and terror. The author looks at the root causes of terror and considers that
globalization has increased the gap between rich and poor, which, in turn, has enhanced the prospects
of violent responses. State-sponsored terrorism also has enhanced those prospects.
As the conclusion, globalization is a matter of historical development, which establishes
Western values, institutions, interests, and security conditions while spreading out the capitalist
economic, social and political order with the help of monetary, technological, and military power.
Globalization is a fact and a historical process with its pluses and minuses but terrorism is a moral
defect and a crime against humanity. Any organization us
Collepals.com Plagiarism Free Papers
Are you looking for custom essay writing service or even dissertation writing services? Just request for our write my paper service, and we'll match you with the best essay writer in your subject! With an exceptional team of professional academic experts in a wide range of subjects, we can guarantee you an unrivaled quality of custom-written papers.
Why Hire Collepals.com writers to do your paper?
Quality- We are experienced and have access to ample research materials.
We write plagiarism Free Content
Confidential- We never share or sell your personal information to third parties.
Support-Chat with us today! We are always waiting to answer all your questions.