To complete this assignment you must read all the required material from module 1. Please keep in mind that it is not an exe
To complete this assignment you must read all the required material from module 1. Please keep in mind that it is not an exercise in summarizing the readings. Summaries will get a lower grade. Discuss your thoughts on the readings, including general themes, disagreements, and any insights you glean from the reading that can be applied to current events. I am not looking for an outline of the readings.
The blog should address the following questions:
- 1. Identify 2 major themes from the readings. Describe them.
- 2. What 2 concepts/ideas/arguments/ from the readings would you challenge? Explain how and why. If you find nothing to challenge or disagree with, think about how one concept discussed in the readings in one context can apply to another context. For example, if a concept, policy, strategy, benefit, and such is discussed in the context of private organizations think about how it might work in public organizations. Or if it is discussed at the local government level, think about how it might work at the state or federal government level. If this does not work, then add something new to the discussion of a concept you find interesting. Whatever you do, avoid agreeing with everything as it is, and definitely do not skip the question.
- 3. Identify and describe 2 implications from the readings for public organization employees.
Please make sure to address all three questions in the blog. Clearly indicate which question you are addressing where.
Chapter 1: Introduction and Conceptual Framework
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How to Become a Good Business Manager?
According to the Chinese tradition, there are four classes in society: scholars, farmers, artisans, and tradesmen
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How to Become a Good Business Manager?
A good manager needs to combine:
the respect for basic human needs of the farmers;
the creativity and strive for excellence of the artisans;
the vision and ethics of the scholars, and
the drive to make a profit of the merchants
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The Challenge of Managing Diversity in a Global Context
Successful management of an increasingly diverse workforce is among the most important global challenges.
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The Challenge of Managing Diversity in a Global Context
Due to:
Today’s global economy;
Global demographic trends; and
Growing demand for equal rights for disenfranchised workers, older workers, workers with disabilities, and sexual orientation minorities.
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Tensions Posed by Global Workforce Trends
Unbalanced fertility rates throughout the world create unprecedented workforce tension.
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Global demographic trends include:
Increased immigration and worker migration
More women in the workforce
Greater economic disparity
Global Demographic Trends
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Global Legislative and Public Policy Trends
Most democratic as well as quite a few non-democratic countries have instituted legislation banning job discrimination against women and members of minority groups.
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Global Legislative and Public Policy Trends
In some countries, employers are required to provide designated groups of applicants, such as racial and ethnic minorities and women, with a competitive advantage by actively recruiting them for open positions.
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The Challenge of Managing Diversity
in a Global Context
The problems arising from today’s workforce diversity are caused not by the changing composition of the work force itself, but by the inability of companies and society to truly integrate and utilize a heterogeneous work force at all levels of the organization
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The experience of social exclusion transcends national boundaries.
Around the world, individuals and groups who do not belong to the “main stream” are excluded from job opportunities, information networks, team membership, human resource investments, and the decision-making
process.
Exclusion
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The Challenge
Creating a comprehensive work environment that welcomes diversity, is inclusive of those who are different from the ‘main stream’, and allows individuals to utilize their talents in a mutually satisfactory way.
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Values and utilizes individual and inter-group differences within its workforce
Cooperates with, and contributes to, its surrounding community
Alleviates the needs of disadvantaged groups in its wider environment
Collaborates with individuals, groups, and organizations across national and cultural boundaries
The Inclusive Workplace
Micro
Macro
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Macro Dimensions Part I | Micro/Mezzo Dimensions Part II | Practice Applications Part III |
Legislation | Individual and group aspects of diversity | Diversity management paradigms |
Demographic trends | Theoretical explanations of intergroup relations | The Inclusive Workplace model |
Public policy | Culture and communication | Practical tools for implementing the model |
Global Economy | Interpersonal cross-cultural relations in the workplace | Cases for discussion |
Conceptual Framework and Organization of the Course
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Chapter 6: Defining Diversity in a Global Context: Prejudice and Discrimination
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Understanding Workforce Diversity
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There is only one caste—humanity.
-Pampa, Indian poet and writer, ninth century
There is no difference among classes of people. All the world is of divine origin.
-The Mahabharata, ancient Sanskrit epic
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Understanding Workforce Diversity
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Workforce diversity is not about differences between people that make them unique; it is about being susceptible to negative employment consequences as a result of one’s belonging to certain social categories or groups.
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Workforce Diversity Defined
Defining the term in such a way that will provide a common meaning across national boundaries to enable effective communication.
The concept of workforce diversity does not travel well across cultural and national boundaries.
The Challenge
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Types of Diversity Definitions:
narrow, category-based definitions (e.g., gender, racial, or ethnic differences)
Workforce Diversity Defined
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broad, category-based definitions (e.g., a long list of categories including such variables as marital status and education)
definitions based on a conceptual rule (e.g., variety of perspectives, differences in perceptions and actions)
Workforce Diversity Defined
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Toward a Global Definition of Diversity
Workforce diversity in the global context refers to the division of the workforce into distinction categories that:
have a perceived commonality within a given cultural or national context, and
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Toward a Global Definition of Diversity
(b) impact potentially harmful or beneficial employment outcomes such as job opportunities, treatment in the workplace, and promotion prospects—irrespective of job- related skills and qualifications.
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Stereotypes and Prejudice
The French have gourmet tastes
The Chinese are hard working
Italians are great lovers
Women are emotional; Men are rational
Examples of Stereotypes
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Stereotypes and Prejudice
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A stereotype is a standardized oversimplified mental picture that is held in common by members of a group
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Stereotypes and Prejudice
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Prejudice is derived from the verb to ‘prejudge’ and refers to a preconceived judgment or opinion held by members of a group. Most commonly, a prejudice is perceived as an irrational attitude of hostility directed against an individual, a group, a race, or their supposed characteristics
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Heterostereotype—perceptions about members from another group
More likely to be negative
More likely to be uniform (not recognize interpersonal differences in members of the other group)
Stereotypes and Prejudice
Types of Stereotypes
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Autostereotype —perceptions of one’s own group
More likely to be positive
More differences
Stereotypes and Prejudice
Types of Stereotypes
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Figure 6.1: A Framework For Viewing Individuals Whose Culture Is Different From One’s Own
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Dehumanization and Oppression
What is dehumanization and why does it occur?
What factors in workforce diversity can cause dehumanization and oppression? Can this occur when stereotypes are brought into the workforce?
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Dehumanization and Oppression
Dehumanization is the most extreme psychological mechanism in viewing members of other groups as inferior, and its behavioral manifestation is oppression
Oppression is the unjust or cruel exercise of authority or power, most often used by one group to dominate another
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Employment-Related Discrimination
“Any distinction, exclusion or preference . . . which has the effect of nullifying or impairing equality of opportunity or treatment in employment or occupation as may be determined. In this convention the grounds for non- discrimination include race, colour, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction or social origin.” (Zegers de Beijl, 2000, p. 10)
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Discrimination in employment occurs when:
a. Individuals, institutions or governments treat people differently because of their personal characteristics, such as race, gender, or sexual orientation rather than their ability to perform their jobs
b. When these actions have a negative impact on access to jobs, promotions, or compensation
Employment-Related Discrimination
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Employment-Related Discrimination
Ethnic and national minorities
Gender
Religion
Sexual Orientation
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Monthly Labor Review May 2002 15
Labor Force Change, 1950–2050
T he history of the U.S. labor forceis a story of dramatic change. The ripplingeffects of the massive demographic changes that occurred within the U.S. population over the latter part of the 20th century will create further changes in the first half of the 21st cen- tury. The labor force—the number of people working or looking for work—is a dynamic con- cept that demonstrates the net impact of all de- mographic, social, political, and historical forces affecting a population. The growth of the labor force is one of the main ingredients of economic growth and prosperity.
This article profiles and projects U.S. labor force trends for a period of 100 years, from 1950 to 2050, on a decennial basis. Changes in both growth rates of the population and labor force participation rates have created a steadily grow- ing labor force that, compared with 1950, is today older, more diversified, and increasingly made up of women. The same forces that have influenced the size and composition of the U.S. labor force over the past 50 years are expected to shape the future of the workforce as well. Some of the key findings emanating from the research upon which the article is based are as follows:
• Slowdown in growth of the labor force. The high growth rate of the civilian labor force1 in the last 50 years will be re- placed by much lower growth rates in the next 50 years. The civilian labor force was 62 million in 1950 and grew to 141 million in 2000, an increase of nearly 79 million, or an annual growth rate of 1.6 percent per year, between 1950 and 2000. It is projected that the labor force will reach 192 million in 2050,
Mitra Toossi
With slower growth, aging, and increasing diversity, the profile of the U.S. labor force is undergoing a gradual, but significant, change
A century of change: the U.S. labor force, 1950–2050
an increase of 51 million, or a growth rate of 0.6 percent annually, between 2000 and 2050. (See table 1.)
• Changes in gender structure of the labor force. Women in the labor force increased their numbers at an extremely rapid pace in the past 50 years. It is anticipated that their labor force growth will slow markedly in the next 50 years. The factor most responsible for the earlier high growth rate was the rapid increase in the labor force participation rate of women, which stood at 34 percent in 1950 and increased to 60 percent by 2000. The number of women in the labor force rose from 18 million in 1950 to 66 million in 2000, an an- nual growth rate of 2.6 percent. The share of women in the labor force grew from 30 percent in 1950 to almost 47 percent in 2000, and the number of working women is projected to reach 92 million by 2050—on the basis of an annual growth rate of 0.7 percent. That same year, women’s share of the workforce is expected to be nearly 48 percent.
• Changes in the age structure of the labor force. With the aging of the baby-boom generation, the older age cohorts are ex- pected to make up a larger proportion of the labor force in the next two decades. The 55- and-older age group, which made up 13 per- cent of the labor force in 2000, is projected to increase to 20 percent by 2020. It is antici- pated that, by 2050, the group will make up 19 percent of the labor force.
• Changes in the racial and ethnic composi- tion of the labor force. The labor force is expected to become more diverse. With higher
Mitra Toossi is an economist in the Office of Occupa- tional Statistics and Employment Projections, Bureau of Labor Statistics. e-mail: [email protected]
16 Monthly Labor Review May 2002
Labor Force Change, 1950–2050
population growth and increasing participation rates, the share of minorities in the workforce is projected to ex- pand substantially. The share of white non-Hispanics is anticipated to decrease from 73 percent in 2000 to 53 per- cent in 2050. Over the same period, Hispanics are expected to more than double their share, from 11 percent in 2000 to 24 percent of the labor force in 2050. Blacks also are ex- pected to increase their share, from 12 percent in 2000 to 14 percent in 2050. Asians, the fastest-growing group in the labor force, are projected to increase their share from 5 percent to 11 percent between 2000 and 2050.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS, the Bureau) publishes medium-term, or 10-year, labor force projections every 2 years. The latest ones covered the 2000–10 period.2 The projections presented in this article provide a longer term perspective on the labor force by looking 50 years ahead. As in the decade- long projection,3 the projected labor force is a product of two factors: the size and growth of the population by age, sex, race, and ethnicity and the future trend of labor force partici- pation rates for various age, sex, race, and ethnicity groups.
The Current Population Survey (CPS)4 is the source of his- torical data on the civilian noninstitutional population and the labor force. The population projections and the CPS are based on estimates of births, deaths, and net immigration since the most recent decennial census. The estimates are benchmarked to the census results. Because population projections based on the 2000 census are not yet available, the Census Bureau’s population projections used in this article still reflect the 1990 census.5
Future labor force participation rates for 136 different groups, including both genders, 17 age groups, and 4 race and ethnicity groups, are estimated on the basis of the labor
force participation behavior of each group in the past. (See box.) By applying the projected labor force participation rates of each group to the projected population of that group, the size of the labor force is estimated, both for detailed catego- ries and for the economy as a whole.
Population growth and the changes in participation rates are the main determinants of labor force growth. Table 2 pre- sents the growth rates of the civilian noninstitutional popula- tion,6 the labor force participation rate,7 and the civilian labor force during the 100 years examined. As the rate of change in labor force participation decreases, more of the growth rate of the labor force is accounted for by the growth rate of the population.
In the 1950–60 period, population growth alone was re- sponsible for the growth of the labor force. During the 1960– 70 period, population growth contributed about 94 percent of the growth in the labor force. In the 1970–80 period, when the labor force participation of women underwent rapid growth, 76 percent of the labor force growth was the result of popula- tion growth, and the rest was related to the growth of partici- pation rates, mainly of women.8 From 2000 to 2050, with the expected overall decline in the participation rate, participation growth is projected to exert even less influence, and the growth of the labor force will likely be due mostly to the im- pact of population growth.
In what follows, the analysis begins with a discussion of the major factors that have affected the trend of the labor force in the past 50 years and their implications for future labor force change: (1) different birth patterns in the U.S. population during the previous 50 years; (2) the extremely rapid growth in the participation rate of women; and (3) the growing racial and ethnic diversity of the labor force. Then the results of the long-term labor force projection are pre-
Civilian labor force by sex, age, race, and Hispanic origin, 1950, 2000, and projected, 2050
[Numbers in thousands]
Level (in thousands) Change Percent change Percent distribution
1950 2000 2050 1950–2000 2000–50 1950–2000 2000–50 1950 2000 2050 1950–2000 2000–50
Total, 16 years and older ……… 62,208 140,863 191,825 78,655 50,961 126.4 36.2 100.0 100.0 100.0 1.6 0.6
Men ……………………………………… 43,819 75,247 100,280 31,428 25,033 71.7 33.3 70.4 53.4 52.3 1.1 .6 Women ………………………………… 18,389 65,616 91,545 47,227 25,928 256.8 39.5 29.6 46.6 47.7 2.6 .7
16 to 24 ……………………………….. 11,522 22,715 31,317 11,193 8,602 97.1 37.9 18.5 16.1 16.3 1.4 .6 25 to 54 ……………………………….. 40,017 99,974 124,443 59,957 24,469 149.8 24.5 64.3 71.0 64.9 1.8 .4 55 and older ………………………….. 10,669 18,175 36,065 7,506 17,891 70.3 98.4 17.2 12.9 18.8 1.1 1.4
White ……………………………………. — 117,574 143,770 … 26,196 … 22.3 … 83.5 74.9 … .4 Black ……………………………………. — 16,603 27,094 … 10,491 … 63.2 … 11.8 14.1 … 1.0 Asian and other1 ……………………. — 6,687 20,960 … 14,274 … 213.5 … 4.7 10.9 … 2.3
Hispanic origin ………………………. — 15,368 45,426 … 30,058 … 195.6 … 10.9 23.7 … 2.2 Other than Hispanic origin ………. — 125,495 146,399 … 20,903 … 16.7 … 89.1 76.3 … .3 White non-Hispanic ………………. — 102,963 102,506 … (457) –.4 … 73.1 53.4 … .0
Annual growth rate (percent)
1 The “Asian and other” group includes (1) Asians and Pacific Islanders and (2) American Indians and Alaska Natives. The historical data are derived by subtracting “black” and “white” from the total; projections are
made directly, not by subtraction.
NOTE: Dash indicates data not available.
Group
Table 1.
Monthly Labor Review May 2002 17
sented. Finally, two other important concepts in the study of the labor force—the median age and economic dependency— are discussed in light of the changes in the composition of the labor force.
Major factors affecting labor force change
Population: birth patterns. A number of distinct birth pat- terns evolved in the population of the United States in the last century that led to similar labor force patterns as the various cohorts9 reached 16 years of age and joined the workforce. These demographic patterns can be traced chronologically as follows:
• Birth dearth: the decline in the number of births between the late 1920s and early 1930s.
• Baby boom: the significant increase in the number of births between 1946 and 1964, with the peak birth year being 1957.
• Baby bust: a decrease in the number of births occurring between the end of the baby boom and the late 1970s.
• Baby-boom echo or baby boomlet: a growth in the num- ber of children born to the baby-boom generation during the 1980s and early 1990s.
The effect of the foregoing demographic events can be seen in table 3, which shows the civilian noninstitutional popula- tion, by sex, race, age, and Hispanic origin, from 1950 to 2050.
The birth dearth can be seen in the decrease of a million people in the 25–34 age group during the 1950–60 period and
a corresponding drop of 948,000 people in the 35–44 age group in the 1960–70 period. The same diminution in births can be further traced through succeeding decades as this cohort ages. The baby boom can be traced to the increase of nearly 9.4 million people in the 16–24 age group during the 1960–70 period and 7.3 million in the 1970–80 period. This increase in births can again be seen in the 25–34 age group a decade later, during the 1970–80 period. The baby bust is reflected by the decrease of nearly 3.8 million in the 16–24 age group during the 1980–90 period. The same impact can be seen in succeeding decades in older age groups. The baby-boom echo also can be seen in the increase of more than a million people in the 16–24 age group during the 1990–2000 period.
These distinct birth patterns can be traced as well in the shape of the population and labor force pyramids in three snapshots for 1950, 2000, and 2050. The birth dearth can be clearly seen in the indentation of the bar representing those in the 15–19 age group in the population pyramid of the 1950s. (See chart 1, top panel.) The surge in the births of the early baby-boom generation is reflected in the extended length of the bar corresponding to the 0–4 age group in 1950.
The middle panel of chart 1 shows the population and labor force pyramid for 2000. The birth dearth of the late 1920s and early 1930s is visible in the 65–69 age group. The swelling at the 35–54 age group in the population pyramid clearly shows the share of the baby boomers in the total population in 2000. The baby bust is visible as the indentation of the bar repre- senting the 25–29 age group. The baby-boom echo is reflected in the bulge of the 15–19 age group of the population.
The bottom panel of chart 1 shows the projected popula- tion pyramid in 2050. It is expected that, in that year, the baby
Projections of labor force participation rates for each age, sex, race, and ethnicity group are developed initially by extrapolating trends, usually on the basis of participation behavior during the previous 7 years. Then, the resulting participation rates are modified when the projection for a specific labor force group is inconsistent with the results of cross-sectional and cohort analysis. This step ensures consistency in the projections across the various demo- graphic groups. Finally, the projected labor force partici- pation rates are applied to the population projections, pro- ducing a labor force projection for each of the different age, sex, race, and ethnicity categories. (For further infor- mation, see “Employment Projections,” in Handbook of Methods (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1999), Chapter 13.)
Labor force participation rates for the various sex, age,
racial, and ethnic categories were projected, as just de- scribed, to the year 2015 and were held constant thereafter. In similar long-term projections of the labor force, the change in participation rates for various age and sex groups, usu- ally based on their past behavior, is often assumed to ap- proach zero beyond a certain point in the projection hori- zon. This assumption is due to uncertainties associated with long-term change in factors affecting the decision to participate in the labor force. Still, despite the fact that detailed participation rates for various population catego- ries are expected to be constant, the overall labor force participation rate is projected to change through 2050. This overall mutability reflects the impact of changes in the rela- tive sizes of the various sex, age, race, and ethnic groups, each of which can have different levels of participation.
Methodology used for the long-term labor force projections
18 Monthly Labor Review May 2002
Labor Force Change, 1950–2050
boomers will be concentrated primarily in the 85-and-older age category of the population, represented by relatively longer bars, especially for women, compared with bars repre- senting previous population cohorts. The pyramid of 2050 looks rectangular in shape in the higher age brackets, indica- tive of the swelling population of aging baby boomers.
The baby bust is reflected in 2050 as the indentation of the bars corresponding to the 80–84 age group of the population. The baby-boom echo is seen as the bulge in the 65–69 age group. A comparative look at the three population pyramids shows how their shapes have changed as a result of alter- ations in the sex and age composition of the population over the entire 100-year period. In addition, the effect that mortality differentials have on the composition of the population dur- ing the century under examination is worth noting: women’s tendency to exhibit lower mortality rates than men within spe- cific age cohorts is visible in both tables for 2000 and 2050, especially in the older age groups.
Labor force participation: rapid growth of the participation rates of women. Among the factors that have contributed to the growth and development of the U.S. labor force, none has been as pronounced as the rise in the participation of women in the labor force. In the two decades after World War II, the U.S. economy enjoyed a major expansion, coupled with increases in productivity, higher standards of living, and rapid acceleration in the growth of college enrollments.10 Rapid eco- nomic growth vastly increased the demand for labor. The civil rights movement, legislation promoting equal opportunity in employment, and the women’s rights movement created an atmosphere that was hospitable to more women working out- side the home. The combination of all of these factors created strong inducements for women to join the workforce, signifi- cantly affecting their participation rate.
The dramatic increase in the labor force participation rates of women during the period was accompanied by many other social, economic, and demographic changes in the status of women:
• Women remained single more often. • Of those who married, many did so later in life, and the
median age at first marriage increased substantially. • Women elected to stay in school longer, achieving higher
educational attainment than in the past and pursuing better paying careers.
• Women postponed childbirth to older ages and had fewer children than in previous decades. As a result of improved child care, women tended to enter the labor force even before their children started school, and they were able to maintain a longer job tenure than in previous periods.
• Women got divorced more often; this in itself increased their labor force participation rate.11
In 1950, the overall participation rate of women was 34 per- cent. (See table 4.) The rate rose to 38 percent in 1960, 43 percent in 1970, 52 percent in 1980, and 58 percent in 1990 and reached 60 percent by 2000. The overall labor force participa- tion rate of women is projected to attain its highest level in 2010, at 62 percent. From then on, it is anticipated to decline slowly, falling to 57 percent in 2050. The projected decline after 2010 is due to the assumption that changes in participa- tion rates will approach zero by 2015, combined with the gradual movement of an aging female labor force into age groups that traditionally have lower participation r
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