Assignment: Psychology Critical Thinking Essay On Spanking

The Evolutionary Perspective • Darwin proposed that natural selection fuels evolution. In evolutionary theory, adaptive

behavior is behavior that promotes the organism’s survival in a natural habitat.

• Evolutionary psychology holds that adaptation, reproduction, and “survival of the fittest” are

important in shaping behavior. Evolutionary developmental psychology emphasizes that

humans need an extended Page 73“juvenile” period to develop a large brain and learn the

complexity of social communities.

Genetic Foundations of Development • Except in the sperm and egg, the nucleus of each human cell contains 46 chromosomes,

which are composed of DNA. Short segments of DNA constitute genes, the units of

hereditary information that direct cells to reproduce and manufacture proteins. Genes act

collaboratively, not independently.

• Genes are passed on to new cells when chromosomes are duplicated during the processes of

mitosis and meiosis.

• Genetic principles include those involving dominant-recessive genes, sex-linked genes, and

polygenic inheritance.

• Chromosome abnormalities can produce Down syndrome and other problems; gene-linked

disorders, such as PKU, involve defective genes.

The Interaction of Heredity and Environment: The Nature-Nurture Debate • Behavior geneticists use twin studies and adoption studies to determine the strength of

heredity’s influence on development.

• In Scarr’s heredity-environment correlation view, heredity directs the types of environments

that children experience. Scarr identified three types of genotype-environment interactions:

passive, evocative, and active (niche-picking).

• The epigenetic view emphasizes that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional

interchange between heredity and environment. Recently, interest has developed regarding

how gene interaction influences development.

• The interaction of heredity and environment is complex, but we can create a unique

developmental path by changing our environment.

Prenatal Development • Prenatal development can be divided into three periods: germinal, embryonic, and fetal. The

growth of the brain during prenatal development is remarkable.

• A number of prenatal tests, including ultrasound sonography, chorionic villus sampling,

amniocentesis, maternal blood screening, and fetal MRI, can reveal whether a fetus is

developing normally.

• Approximately 10 to 15 percent of U.S. couples have infertility problems. Assisted

reproduction techniques, such as in vitro fertilization, are increasingly being used by infertile

couples.

• Some prescription drugs and nonprescription drugs can harm the unborn child. In particular,

the psychoactive drugs caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, cocaine, marijuana, and heroin can

endanger developing offspring. Other potential sources of harmful effects on the fetus

include environmental hazards, maternal diseases, maternal diet and nutrition, age, emotional

states and stress, and paternal factors.

• Prenatal care usually involves medical care services with a defined schedule of visits and

often encompasses educational, social, and nutritional services as well. Inadequate prenatal

care may increase the risk of infant mortality and result in low birth weight.

Birth and the Postpartum Period • Childbirth occurs in three stages. Childbirth strategies involve the childbirth setting and

attendants. In many countries, a midwife attends a childbearing woman. In some countries, a

doula helps with the birth. Methods of delivery include medicated, natural and prepared,

and cesarean.

• Being born involves considerable stress for the baby, but the baby is well prepared and

adapted to handle the stress. Low birth weight, preterm, and small for date infants are at risk

for developmental problems, although most of these infants are normal and healthy.

Kangaroo care and massage therapy have been shown to produce benefits for preterm infants.

• Early bonding has not been found to be critical in the development of a competent infant, but

close contact during the first few days after birth may reduce the mother’s anxiety and lead to

better interaction later.

• The postpartum period lasts for about six weeks after childbirth or until the body has returned

to a nearly prepregnant state; postpartum depression is a serious condition that may become

worse if not treated.