Determine whether certain personality traits are actually expressed in the voice and whether listeners are sensitive to these cues? What are the different pe
Your short answer is based on this module's readings and videos and has 6 questions. You have 2 hours to answer the questions. It is worth a total of 6 points. Guidelines to answer each question:
- Each question should be answered in 1-2 paragraphs of at least 5-7 sentences each paragraph.
- Incorporate corresponding terminology (review chapter).
- Review grammar and mechanics
- Read articles before completing
You will be asked to answer the following list of questions:
- Determine whether certain personality traits are actually expressed in the voice and whether listeners are sensitive to these cues? What are the different personality stereotypes related to voice?
- What is known about emotional ex-pression in the human voice? Can people can identify emotions in the voice? Why? How?
- What are the typical prescriptions for use of the voice in delivering a public speech?
- Several studies tend to support the prescriptions for vocal variety in increasing audience comprehension and retention. Please develop in detail.
- Vocal cues play an important role in managing the interaction and are part of a system of cues that helps people structure their interactions. How? What are the different rules for managing interactions? Explain in detail.
- What are the reasons for why pauses occur? Define are the different types of pauses? Explain in detail.
- What are three of the many interpersonal functions served by silence? List and explain.
- Research suggests that the voice may be important in some aspects of persuasion. Why? How?
- Consider stereotypes you have about the voice—for example, about high or low voices, fast or slow voices, voices with different accents, and so on. Discuss what truth you think there is to the stereotypes, based on as many real examples as you can think of.
- Analyze the phenomenon of sarcasm in terms of the voice as well as the other cues that might be associated with it. Are verbal and non-verbal usages different in teasing (or joking) compared to being sarcastic?
RESROUCES:
BOOK and POWERPOINT SLIDES ATTACHED
Nonverbal Communication
Chapter 11
The Effects of Vocal Cues That Accompany Speech
Definitions
Prosody (term preferred in linguistics)
Paralanguage (term preferred in psychology)
Both terms describe variations in the voice that accompany speech and clarify its meaning
Paralanguage is more inclusive because it includes vocal behavior that is not attached to speech
Definitions (cont’d)
Clarifying and disambiguating verbal message
Pausing between clauses
Stopping between sentences
Distinguishing questions from declarative sentences
Emphasis to clarify meaning:
The dog that I want to buy
The dog that I want to buy
The dog that I want to buy
Definitions (cont’d)
Conveying additional meaning and information:
About the message (joking)
About the speaker (female)
About the speaker’s state (tense)
About the relationship (formal)
Definitions (cont’d)
Paralanguage may stand alone
May contradict words
May convey a parallel message, simultaneous with the words
Paralanguage can also be called voice tone, voice quality, vocal cues
How are Cue Channels Weighed in the Total Message?
What “counts” more when listeners form impressions?
Mehrabian’s early studies (e.g., speakers say positive or negative words with positive or negative tone or facial expression):
Face > voice tone > words
These were artificial experiments
Can often be true, but not always
How are Cue Channels Weighed in the Total Message (cont’d)
Words count the most when the words are the ‘bottom line’
Teacher says “you failed the test”
Doesn’t matter whether tone is positive or negative
How are Cue Channels Weighed in the Total Message (cont’d)
Words also count the most when they are the easiest and most reliable to judge
Words likely to be less ambiguous than nonverbal cues
Example: When guessing someone’s thoughts and feelings, words have a lot of the information you need to be accurate so you attend to them first
How are Cue Channels Weighed in the Total Message (cont’d)
Nonverbal cues may matter more if encoder is trying to lie or hide something or if there is a big discrepancy between verbal and nonverbal
Nonverbal cues can convey ‘leakage’: information the encoder did not want to convey
Generally, verbal and nonverbal work together more than one ‘counting’ more than the other
The Ingredients and Methods of Studying Paralanguage
Acoustic properties
Speech rate
Fundamental frequency (pitch)
Intensity (loudness)
Rhythm, contour, variation (in the above)
Non-words – mmm, uhh
Non-sounds – pauses between words and phrases; speech latency (switching pause)
Other phenomena – accents, nonfluencies (speech errors), laughing, sighing, interrupting
Content-Masked Speech
How to separate verbal from vocal information?
Standard content (alphabet, standard passage) – only works for certain situations
Foreign language
Random splicing
Electronic filtering (band-pass filters)
Choosing a Level of Analysis
Acoustic measurements
Example: fundamental frequency
Mid-level descriptions (ratings)
Examples: nasality, breathiness, expressiveness
Global impressions
Examples: angry, bored, sexy
Vocal Cues and Speaker Recognition
How do we recognize speakers
Listening
Visual comparison of spectrograms (plot of vocal energy in different frequency bands)
Recognition by computers
Listening is very accurate
But depends on various factors
Familiarity, delay, duration, disguised voices, distinctiveness, dialect
Vocal Cues and Speaker Recognition (cont’d)
A more objective method of speaker identification involves the spectrogram (AKA voiceprint)
A visual picture of a persons speech, similar to a fingerprint
Unlike fingerprints, can show large variability from one measurement to another, and can appear very similar
Not yet reliable enough to be used in trails
Vocal Cues and Personality
Extraversion
More fluency, faster rate, louder speech, more dynamic contrast, higher pitch, more variable pitch
Masculinity
Less expressive, lower pitches, slower, louder voices, poor enunciation
Vocal Cues and Personality (cont’d)
Type A (‘coronary-prone personality’)
Fast speech, uneven speech rate, short latencies, interruptions, loud/explosive voice, hard or staccato voice
Attractiveness
More resonant, less monotonous, less nasal, lower in pitch (in men)
Dominance
Loudness, interruptions, lower pitch
Vocal Cues and Group Perceptions
People tend to evaluate speech samples across the following dimensions
Sociointellectual status – high or low social status, blue or white collar, rich or poor, and literate or illiterate
Aesthetic quality – pleasing or displeasing, nice or awful, sweet or sour, beautiful or ugly
Dynamism – aggressive or unaggressive, active or passive, strong or weak, loud or soft
Vocal Cues and Sociodemographic Characteristics
Gender
Fundamental frequency is an important acoustic cue in speaker gender identification
Women speak somewhat more tentatively than men
Age
Age is judged quite accurately from the voice
Social Class/Status/Dominance
Speaker’s status can be identified quite quickly from the voice
Those high in dominance generally speak more loudly and have a less variable pitch
Other-Directed Speech
Baby talk (“motherese”) directed to babies and pets
Slow, sing-song, simple, repetitive, high
Baby talk directed to baby-faced children
Baby talk directed to the elderly or impaired (AKA elderspeak)
Vocal Cues and Emotion
In animals and birds, vocal cues convey important information
Identity, relationship, alarm, territory, physical states, emotions
In humans, many emotions can be judged from vocal cues
Vocal Cues and Emotion (cont’d)
How are emotions conveyed through the voice?
Evidence based on analysis of actual voices, synthesized tones, and music: converging results
Vocal Cues and Emotion (cont’d)
Examples
Joy/elation: higher pitch and pitch range, higher loudness, faster rate
Sadness/depression: lower pitch, lower loudness, downward contours, slower rate, longer pauses
State anxiety: higher pitch, tremor, ‘non-ah’, speech dysfluencies (sentence change, repetition, stutter, incoherent sounds, etc.)
(‘Ah’ speech dysfluencies don’t indicate anxiety)
Impact of Vocal Quality
Physician and therapist studies
Angry tone predicts less therapy success
Bored tone correlated with less clinical competence
Warm and supportive doctor tone correlated with more patient satisfaction
Dominant and low-anxious doctor tone correlated with being sued more (surgeons)
Impact of Vocal Quality (cont’d)
Workplace studies
Vocal empathy and enthusiasm correlated with better ratings of sales effectiveness by superiors
Faster speech, more pitch variability, fewer pauses, and lower pitch correlated with better performance ratings by superiors
Vocal Cues, Comprehension, and Persuasion
Good delivery matters (for retention, persuasion, credibility)
Vocal variety is good (not monotone)
Avoid excessive dysfluencies
Persuasion
More speech loudness, less halting speech, more pitch variation
Faster speech: Why? Possibilities: listener attributes competence; listener too busy to develop counterarguments; listener too distracted to develop counterarguments
Vocal Cues and Turn Taking in Conversations
Turn Yielding
Questioning tone at end of utterance
Drawl
Lower pitch
Pause
Filler-trail off (so, ah, you know, like)
Vocal Cues and Turn Taking in Conversations (cont’d)
Turn Requesting
Audible intake of breath
Interrupt
Stutter start
Fast back-channel responses (uh-huh, yeah)
Vocal Cues and Turn Taking in Conversations (cont’d)
Turn Maintaining
Increased speech rate
Decreased silent pauses
Increased volume
Increased frequency of filled pauses (‘ah’ speech dysfluencies)
Vocal Cues and Turn Taking in Conversations (cont’d)
Turn Denying
Increased back channel responses
Silence
Hesitations, Pauses, Silence and Speech
Location of pauses
Grammatical, such as between clauses (aural punctuation)
Nongrammatical (some other psychological function)
Types of pauses
Filled pause (uh, um, ah)
Unfilled (silent) pause
Before speaking (=speech latency)
During one’s speech
Mimicking and Reciprocity in the Vocal Channel
Emotional contagion via the voice
(‘catching’ the other person’s emotion)
Length of utterance influenced by other’s vocal and other behaviors
Length of utterance
Head nods
Mm-hmms
Length of pauses influenced by other’s length of pauses
,
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION IN HUMAN INTERACTION
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION IN HUMAN INTERACTION
E I G H T H
E D I T I O N
Mark L. Knapp The University of Texas at Austin
Judith A. Hall Northeastern University
Terrence G. Horgan University of Michigan, Flint
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Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction, Eighth Edition Mark L. Knapp, Judith A. Hall and Terrence G. Horgan
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BRIEF CONTENTS
PREFACE xv
PART I AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION 1
C H A P T E R 1 Nonverbal Communication: Basic Perspectives 3
C H A P T E R 2 The Roots of Nonverbal Behavior 29
C H A P T E R 3 The Ability to Receive and Send Nonverbal Signals 59
PART I I THE COMMUNICATION ENVIRONMENT 89
C H A P T E R 4 The Effects of the Environment on Human Communication 91
C H A P T E R 5 The Effects of Territory and Personal Space on Human Communication 123
PART I I I THE COMMUNICATORS 151
C H A P T E R 6 The Effects of Physical Characteristics on Human Communication 153
v
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PART IV THE COMMUNICATORS’ BEHAVIOR 197
C H A P T E R 7 The Effects of Gesture and Posture on Human Communication 199
C H A P T E R 8 The Effects of Touch on Human Communication 231
C H A P T E R 9 The Effects of the Face on Human Communication 258
C H A P T E R 1 0 The Effects of Eye Behavior on Human Communication 295
C H A P T E R 1 1 The Effects of Vocal Cues That Accompany Spoken Words 323
PART V COMMUNICATING IMPORTANT MESSAGES 357
C H A P T E R 1 2 Using Nonverbal Behavior in Daily Interaction 359
C H A P T E R 1 3 Nonverbal Messages in Special Contexts 395
REFERENCES 421
NAME INDEX 493
SUBJECT INDEX 508
vi BRIEF CONTENTS
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CONTENTS
PREFACE xv
PART I AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION 1
C H A P T E R 1 Nonverbal Communication: Basic Perspectives 3
Perspective 1: Defining Nonverbal Communication 8 Processing Nonverbal Information 9 Awareness and Control 10
Perspective 2: Classifying Nonverbal Behavior 10 The Communication Environment 11 The Communicators’ Physical Characteristics 11 Body Movement and Position 12
Perspective 3: Nonverbal Communication in the Total Communication Process 14
Repeating 15 Conflicting 15 Complementing 18 Substituting 19 Accenting/Moderating 19 Regulating 19
Perspective 4: Historical Trends in Nonverbal Research 21
Perspective 5: Nonverbal Communication in Everyday Life 25
Summary 27
vii
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C H A P T E R 2 The Roots of Nonverbal Behavior 29
The Development of Nonverbal Behavior across Evolutionary Time 31 Evidence from Sensory Deprivation 32 Evidence from Infants 37 Evidence from Twin Studies 40 Evidence from Nonhuman Primates 44 Evidence from Multicultural Studies 52
Summary 57
C H A P T E R 3 The Ability to Receive and Send Nonverbal Signals 59
Development and Improvement of Nonverbal Skills 61
Is It Good to Have More Accurate Knowledge of Nonverbal Communication? 64
Measuring the Accuracy of Decoding and Encoding Nonverbal Cues 65 Standardized Tests of Decoding Ability 68
Personal Factors Influencing the Accuracy of Decoding Nonverbal Cues 71 Self-Appraisals and Explicit Knowledge of Nonverbal Cues 72 Gender 73 Age 73 General Cognitive Ability 74 Other Personal Correlates 75 Substance Abuse 77 Culture 78
Task Factors Affecting Nonverbal Decoding Accuracy 78
Characteristics of Accurate Nonverbal Senders 79 Putting Decoding and Encoding Together 82
On Being an Observer of Nonverbal Communication 83 The Fallibility of Human Perception 85
Summary 86
PART II THE COMMUNICATION ENVIRONMENT 89
C H A P T E R 4 The Effects of the Environment on Human Communication 91
Perceptions of Our Surroundings 94 Perceptions of Formality 94 Perceptions of Warmth 95 Perceptions of Privacy 96 Perceptions of Familiarity 96
viii CONTENTS
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Perceptions of Constraint 96 Perceptions of Distance 96
Reacting to Environments 97
Perceptions of Time 98
The Natural Environment 100
Other People in the Environment 104
Architectural Design and Movable Objects 105 Color 108 Sound 111 Lighting 113 Movable Objects 114 Structure and Design 116
Regulating Environments and Communication 121
Summary 122
C H A P T E R 5 The Effects of Territory and Personal Space on Human Communication 123
The Concept of Territoriality 123
Territoriality: Invasion and Defense 125
Density and Crowding 129 The Effects of High Density on Human Beings 131 Coping with High Density 132
Conversational Distance 133 Sex 137 Age 137 Cultural and Ethnic Background 138 Topic or Subject Matter 139 Setting for the Interaction 140 Physical Characteristics 140 Attitudinal and Emotional Orientation 140 Characteristics of the Interpersonal Relationship 141 Personality Characteristics 141
Seating Behavior and Spatial Arrangements in Small Groups 142 Leadership 143 Dominance 144 Task 144 Sex and Acquaintance 145 Introversion–Extraversion 147 Conclusion 147
Summary 148
CONTENTS ix
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PART III THE COMMUNICATORS 151
C H A P T E R 6 The Effects of Physical Characteristics on Human Communication 153
Our Body: Its General Attractiveness 154 Dating and Marriage 156 On the Job 159 Persuading Others 160 Self-Esteem 161 Antisocial Behavior 161
The Power of Physical Attractiveness: Some Important Qualifications 162 The Effects of Interaction 162 The Effects of Context 163 Stereotypes Are Not Always Valid 164 Attractiveness over Time 164
Our Body: Its Specific Features 165 Attractiveness and the Face 165 Judgments of the Face 167 Body Shape 169 Height 174 Body Image 177 Body Color 178 Body Smell 179 Body Hair 182
Our Body: Clothes and Other Artifacts 186 Functions of Clothing 188 Clothing as Information About the Person 190 Effects of Clothing on the Wearer 190 Clothing and Personality 191 Artifacts and Body Decorations 192
Summary 194
PART IV THE COMMUNICATORS’ BEHAVIOR 197
C H A P T E R 7 The Effects of Gesture and Posture on Human Communication 199
Speech-Independent Gestures 201
Speech-Related Gestures 211 Referent-Related Gestures 212 Gestures Indicating a Speaker’s Relationship to the Referent 212
x CONTENTS
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