October 30, 2024

Do an internet search to find an example of a corporate logo that integrates the figure/ground concept into its design. (Like the two examples I showed you in

Watch my VIDEOLinks to an external site. for this week to hear the details about this assignment. There are two parts to it.

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=99PVqC7hvUI

PART ONE:

Do an internet search to find an example of a corporate logo that integrates the figure/ground concept into its design. (Like the two examples I showed you in my video. HINT: of course, you are not allowed to use the same ones I chose!)

Save a copy of the image and attach it in your response. That's all there is to this part. Just posting a pic and you're done with Part One!

PART TWO:

This one might be a little more challenging! After reading about the picture called "The Forest Has Eyes" by Bev Doolittle, and the Gestalt heuristic about the law of familiarity, take a picture of something that you see where you recognize a FACE somewhere in it. Listen to video to hear more detail about this and to see my personal example of the arm chair where part of the fabric seems to me to be a "face." If you're like me, maybe you already instantly know something in your house that reminds you of a face. If not, and you've never experienced this phenomenon before, try to open up your mind and let your imagination run free!

After you have located something, take a picture of it and post it to this discussion. DON'T tell us where you see the face until everybody has had an opportunity to guess!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xBo-PaPnM4k

Chapter5PowerPoint.ppsx

Chapter 5

Perceiving Objects and Scenes

Why Is It So Difficult to Design a Perceiving Machine?

The stimulus on the receptors is ambiguous.

Inverse projection problem: an image on the retina can be caused by an infinite number of objects.

Objects can be hidden or blurred.

Occlusions are common in the environment.

Why Is It So Difficult to Design a Perceiving Machine? (cont'd.)

Figure 5.6 An environmental sculpture by Thomas Macaulay. (a) When viewed from the exact right vantage point (the second-floor balcony of the Blackhawk Mountain School of Art, Black Hawk, Colorado), the stones appear to be arranged in a circle. (b) Viewing the stones from the ground floor reveals a truer indication of their configuration.

Why Is It So Difficult to Design a Perceiving Machine? (cont'd.)

The stimulus on the receptors is ambiguous.

Inverse projection problem: an image on the retina can be caused by an infinite number of objects.

Objects can be hidden or blurred.

Occlusions are common in the environment.

Why Is It So Difficult to Design a Perceiving Machine? (cont'd.)

Figure 5.7 A portion of the mess on the author’s desk. Can you locate the hidden pencil (easy) and the author’s glasses (hard)?

Why Is It So Difficult to Design a Perceiving Machine? (cont'd.)

Figure 5.8 Who are these people? See page 121 for the answers.

Why Is It So Difficult to Design a Perceiving Machine? (cont'd.)

Objects look different from different viewpoints.

Viewpoint invariance: the ability to recognize an object regardless of the viewpoint

This is a difficult task for computers to perform.

Why Is It So Difficult to Design a Perceiving Machine? (cont'd.)

Figure 5.9 Your ability to recognize each of these views as being of the same chair is an example of viewpoint invariance.

Perceptual Organization

Approach established by Wundt (late 1800s)

States that perceptions are created by combining elements called sensations

Structuralism could not explain apparent movement.

Stimulated the founding of Gestalt psychology in the 1920s by Wertheimer, Koffka, and Kohler

The whole differs from the sum of its parts.

Perception is not built up from sensations, but is a result of perceptual organization.

Perceptual Organization (cont'd.)

Figure 5.10 Examples of grouping and segregation in a city scene.

The Gestalt Approach to Perceptual Grouping

Structuralism

Distinguished between sensations and perceptions

Apparent movement

Illusion of movement

Illusory contours

Appear real but have physical edge

The Gestalt Approach to Perceptual Grouping (cont'd.)

Figure 5.12 According to structuralism, a number of sensations (represented by the dots) add up to create our perception of the face.

The Gestalt Approach to Perceptual Grouping (cont'd.)

Figure 5.11 Some black and white shapes that become perceptually organized into a Dalmatian. See page 121 for an outline of the Dalmatian.

The Gestalt Approach to Perceptual Grouping (cont'd.)

Figure 5.13 The conditions for creating apparent movement. (a) One light flashes, followed by (b) a short period of darkness, followed by (c) another light flashing in a different position. The resulting perception, symbolized in (d), is a light moving from left to right. Movement is seen between the two lights even though there is only darkness in the space between them.

The Gestalt Approach to Perceptual Grouping (cont'd.)

Figure 5.15 The illusory contours clearly visible in (b) and (c) cannot be caused by sensations, because there is only white there.

The Gestalt Approach to Perceptual Grouping (cont'd.)

Principles of perceptual organization

Good continuation: connected points resulting in straight or smooth curves belong together.

Lines are seen as following the smoothest path.

Pragnanz: every stimulus is seen as simply as possible.

Similarity: similar things are grouped together.

The Gestalt Approach to Perceptual Grouping (cont'd.)

Figure 5.16 (a) Rope on the beach. (b) Good continuation helps us perceive the rope as single strand.

The Gestalt Approach to Perceptual Grouping (cont'd.)

Figure 5.17 Good continuation helps us perceive two separate wires, even though they overlap.

The Gestalt Approach to Perceptual Grouping (cont'd.)

Figure 5.17 (a) The Olympic symbol is perceived as five circles, not as the nine shapes in (b).

Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization

Figure 5.18 (a) These dots are perceived as horizontal rows or vertical columns or both. (b) These dots are perceived as vertical columns.

Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization (cont'd.)

Proximity: things that are near to each other are grouped together.

Common fate: things moving in the same direction are grouped together.

Common region: elements in the same region tend to be grouped together.

Uniform connectedness: connected region of visual properties are perceived as single unit.

Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization (cont'd.)

Figure 5.20 This photograph, Waves, by Wilma Hurskainen, was taken at the exact moment that the front of the white water aligned with the white area on the woman’s clothing. Similarity of color causes grouping; differently colored areas of the dress are perceptually grouped with the same colors in the scene. Also notice how the front edge of the water creates grouping by good continuation across the woman’s dress.

Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization (cont'd.)

Figure 5.21 The candles are grouped by proximity to create three separate groups. Can you identify additional Gestalt principles in the patterns on the menorah?

Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization (cont'd.)

Figure 5.22 Grouping by (a) common region and (b) uniform connectedness.

Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization (cont'd.)

Figure 5.23 A usual occurrence in the environment: Objects (the men’s legs) are partially hidden by another object (the gray boards). In this example, the men’s legs continue in a straight line and are the same color above and below the boards, so it is highly likely that they continue behind the boards.

Perceptual Segregation

Figure-ground segregation: determining what part of environment is the figure so that it “stands out” from the background

Properties of figure and ground

The figure is more “thinglike” and more memorable than the ground.

The figure is seen in front of the ground.

The ground is more uniform and extends behind figure.

The contour separating figure from the ground belongs to the figure (border ownership).

Perceptual Segregation (cont’d.)

Figure 5.24 A version of Rubin’s reversible face-vase figure.

Perceptual Segregation (cont'd.)

Figure 5.25 (a) When the vase is perceived as figure, it is seen in front of a homogeneous dark background. (b) When the faces are seen as figure, they are seen in front of a homogeneous light background.

Perceiving Scenes and Objects in Scenes

Information within the image determines perception-grouping.

Areas lower in the field of view are more likely to be perceived as a figure.

Perceiving Scenes and Objects in Scenes (cont'd.)

Figure 5.26 (a) Stimuli from the Vecera et al. (2002) experiment. (b) Percentage of trials on which lower or left areas were seen as figure.

Perceiving the Gist of a Scene

Figure 5.27 The field, in the bottom half of the visual field, is seen as figure. The sky in the upper half of the visual field is seen as ground.

Perceiving the Gist of a Scene (cont'd.)

Another Gestalt principle: figures are more likely to be perceived on the convex side of borders.

Peterson and Salvagio’s (2008) Experiment

Figure 5.28 Stimuli from Peterson and Salvagio’s (2008) experiment: (a) 8-component display; (b) 2-component display; (c) 4-component display. The red squares appeared on different areas on different trials. The subject’s task was to judge whether the area the red square was on was “figure” or “ground.

Perceiving the Gist of a Scene (cont'd.)

Built-in principles can override experience.

Segregation of figure from ground

Gibson and Peterson experiment

Figure-ground formation can be affected by the meaningfulness of a stimulus.

Perceiving the Gist of a Scene (cont'd.)

Figure 5.29(a) W on top of M. (b) When combined, a new pattern emerges, overriding the meaningful letters.

Perceiving the Gist of a Scene (cont'd.)

Figure 5.30 Gibson and Peterson’s (1994) stimulus. (a) The black area is more likely to be seen as figure because it is meaningful. (b) This effect does not occur when meaningfulness is decreased by turning the picture upside down.

Perceiving the Gist of a Scene (cont'd.)

A scene contains:

Background elements

Objects organized in meaningful ways with each other and the background

Difference between objects and scenes

A scene is acted within.

An object is acted upon.

Perceiving the Gist of a Scene (cont'd.)

Research on perceiving gists of scenes

Potter showed that people can do this when a picture is only presented for 1/4 second.

Fei-Fei used masking to show that the overall gist is perceived first followed by details.

The instructor can define masking and the term persistence of vision when presenting the slide of the experiment for Fei-Fei. Potter’s experiment can also be explained when the slide is presented.

Perceiving the Gist of a Scene (cont'd.)

Figure 5.32 Procedure for Potter’s (1976) experiment. She first presented either a target photograph or, as shown here, a description, and then rapidly presented 16 pictures for 250 ms each. The observer’s task was to indicate whether the target picture had been presented. In this example, only 3 of the 16 pictures are shown, with the target picture being the second one presented. On some trials, the target picture was not included in the series of 16 pictures.

Perceiving the Gist of a Scene (cont'd.)

Global image features of scenes

Degree of naturalness

Degree of openness

Degree of roughness

Degree of expansion

Color

Such features are holistic and perceived rapidly.

Perceiving the Gist of a Scene (cont'd.)

Figure 5.34 Three scenes that have different global image properties.

Regularities in the Environment: Information for Perceiving

Physical regularities: regularly occurring physical properties

Oblique effect: people perceive horizontals and vertical more easily than other orientations.

Uniform connectedness: objects are defined by areas of the same color or texture.

Regularities in the Environment: Information for Perceiving (cont'd.)

Figure 5.35 In these two scenes from nature, horizontal and vertical orientations are more common than oblique orientations. These scenes are special examples, picked because the large proportion of verticals. However, randomly selected photos of natural scenes also contain more horizontal and vertical orientations than oblique orientations. This also occurs for human-made buildings and objects

Regularities in the Environment: Information for Perceiving (cont'd.)

Physical regularities: regularly occurring physical properties

Homogenous colors and nearby objects have different colors.

Light-from-above heuristic: light in natural environment comes from above us.

Regularities in the Environment: Information for Perceiving (cont'd.)

Palmer experiment

Observers saw a context scene flashed briefly, followed by a target picture.

Results showed that:

Targets congruent with the context were identified 80% of the time.

Targets that were incongruent were only identified 40% of the time.

Regularities in the Environment: Information for Perceiving (cont'd.)

Figure 5.37 Stimuli used in Palmer’s (1975) experiment. The scene at the left is presented first, and the observer is then asked to identify one of the objects on the right.

Regularities in the Environment: Information for Perceiving (cont'd.)

Figure 5.38 “Multiple personalities of a blob.” What we expect to see in different contexts influences our interpretation of the identity of the “blob” inside the circles.

Role of Inference in Perception

Theory of unconscious inference

Created by Helmholtz (1866/1911) to explain why stimuli can be interpreted in more than one way

Likelihood principle: objects are perceived based on what is most likely to have caused the pattern

Modern researchers use Bayesian inference that take probabilities into account.

Role of Inference in Perception (cont'd.)

Figure 5.39 The display in (a) is usually interpreted as being (b) a blue rectangle in front of a red rectangle. It could, however, be (c) a blue rectangle and an appropriately positioned six-sided red figure.

Role of Inference in Perception (cont'd.)

Figure 5.40 These graphs present hypothetical probabilities, to illustrate the principle behind Bayesian inference. (a) Maria’s beliefs about the relative frequency of having a cold, lung disease, and heartburn. These beliefs are her priors. (b) Further data indicate that colds and lung disease are associated with coughing, but heartburn is not. These data contribute to the likelihood. (c) Taking the priors and likelihood together results in the conclusion that Charles’s cough is probably due to a cold.

Connecting Neural Activity and Object Perception

Brain responses to perceiving faces and places

Binocular rivalry

Tong and colleagues (1998) research

Demonstrated that changes in perception and changes in brain activity mirrored each other

Connecting Neural Activity and Object Perception (cont'd.)

Figure 5.41 Observers in Tong et al.’s (1998) experiment viewed the overlapping red house and green face through red–green glasses, so the house image was presented to the right eye and the face image to the left eye. Because of binocular rivalry, the observers’ perception alternated back and forth between the face and the house. When the observers perceived the house, activity occurred in the parahippocampal place area (PPA) in the left and right hemispheres (red ellipses). When observers perceived the face, activity occurred in the fusiform face area (FFA) in the left hemisphere (green ellipse).

Spotlight on the Parahippocampal Place Area

When Tong’s subjects perceived the house, parahippocampal area (PPA) became active

Spatial layout hypothesis

Are scenes or places necessary for activation of PPA?

Space defining vs. space ambiguous

Neural Mind Reading

Using a neural response to determine what a person is perceiving or thinking

Usually by fMRI

Structural encoding

Semantic encoding

Neural Mind Reading (cont'd.)

Experiment by Kamitani & Tong

Gratings with different orientations were presented to participants.

Responses from fMRI voxels were measured.

Activity patterns across voxels varies by grating orientation.

An orientation decoder was used to analyze the voxel activity.

The decoder could accurately predict which orientation had been presented.

Neural Mind Reading (cont'd.)

Figure 5.42 (a) Viewing an oriented grating like the one on the left causes a pattern of activation of voxels. The cubes in the brain represent the response of eight voxels. The differences in shading represent the pattern of activation of the orientation being viewed (b) Results of Kamitani and Tong’s (2005) experiment for two orientations. The gratings are the stimuli presented to the observer. The line is the orientation predicted by the decoder. The decoder was able to accurately predict the orientations of all eight of the gratings tested.

Neural Mind Reading (cont'd.)

Figure 5.43 Principle behind neural mind reading. (a) As the subject looks at different orientations, fMRI is used to determine voxel activation patterns for each orientation. (b) A decoder is created based on the voxel patterns collected in (a). (c) As a subject looks at an orientation, the decoder analyzes the voxel pattern recorded from the subject’s visual cortex. Based on this voxel pattern, the decoder predicts the orientation that the subject is observing

Neural Mind Reading (cont'd.)

Figure 5.44 Calibration of Naselaris’s structural decoder. Natural images are presented to a subject, and the way a large number of voxels respond to the features contained in each image is determined. Just&

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