Social Science Question
PTSD AND TEST ANXIETY 1 The Association Between Test Anxiety and PTS in College Students Daniel A. Clark Texas A&M University – Central Texas PTSD AND TEST ANXIETY 2 Abstract Very few empirical studies. To be completed at the end. Keywords: post traumatic stress, test anxiety PTSD AND TEST ANXIETY 3 The Association Between Test Anxiety and PTS in College Students Several different issues have been researched as issues that are encountered by college students who have experienced trauma and Post-traumatic Stress symptoms (PTS). Among those who have served in the military, these problems seem to be along the lines of social alienation (Elliott et al., 2011), interpersonal relationship difficulties (Fredman et al., 2019), substance abuse (Barry et al., 2012), and PTS (Campbell & Riggs, 2015). Many of these researchers have studied difficulties that may be experienced in many different environments, but the academic environment of higher education is becoming a very important one for these individuals as more and more of them are seeking to obtain postsecondary education (Zhang, 2018). Along with this pursuit, taking tests and the associated anxiety is a reality that many of them will face (Chapell et al., 2005). Unfortunately, previous research has not examined the relationship between test anxiety and PTS. Test Anxiety and Academic Performance When taking exams, many students experience heightened physiological arousal, excessive worry and tension, and task irrelevant thoughts (Sarason, 1984). Although test anxiety is not considered an official psychological disorder, it is important because it can have a negative effect on academic performance in many different contexts (Cassady, 2004). Although the causes of test anxiety are not exactly known, it is thought to be a combination of situational factors (such as parent or teacher pressure) and personal factors (such as achievement goals and personal history) that lead to the problem (Putwain et al., 2010). One fairly consistent finding has been that female students usually have higher test anxiety than male students (Chapell et al., 2005). Attentional control theory has suggested that test anxiety may disrupt the functions of working PTSD AND TEST ANXIETY 4 memory, leaving fewer cognitive resources for the individual to answer questions and solve problems (Eysenck & Derakshan, 2011). Using this framework, it would not be surprising that other psychological phenomena such as PTS could also affect cognitive functioning. Post-Traumatic Stress and Academic Achievement Although it is not the only concern, the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) has been found to be more common among individuals who have served in the armed forces (Schonfeld et al., 2015). The disorder is characterized by past exposure to a traumatic event and lasting symptoms of memory intrusions, avoidance of memory associated stimuli, cognitive and mood alterations, and a state of hyperarousal (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Similar to test anxiety, PTSD also affects an individual’s attentional control and memory retrieval (Bonyea et al., 2016). However, the effect is not identical. PTS appears to affect the perception of threat cues, leading to individuals focus on potential threats (Armstrong et al., 2013). Despite the differences in the two constructs, similar mechanisms have been proposed that may disrupt an individual’s ability to be successful in an academic setting. In addition, PTSD has been linked to both generalized (Munoz et al., 2018) and social anxiety (McMillan et al., 2014). Utilizing data from a 20-year longitudinal study of war veterans, Ginzburg et al. (2010) found that PTSD is not only associated with anxiety disorders, but it often precedes the development of anxiety disorders. Given the evidence of this connection, it seems likely that PTSD and test anxiety will also be associated with one another. The Current Study The current study sought to discover the prevalence and connection between PTS and test anxiety amongst a sample of nontraditional students that includes Student Veterans who have PTSD AND TEST ANXIETY 5 been Previously Deployed (SVPD) when compared to Servicemembers who had Never Deployed (SND) and civilian college students. In addition, the current study was part of a larger study that was designed to discover several different aspects that may affect the success and well-being of SVPD. Research Question 1: Are PTS symptoms related to symptoms of test anxiety? Hypothesis 1. Based on the presented evidence, it was expected that there will be a positive correlation between PTS symptoms and test anxiety. Research Question 2: Are PTS and test anxiety related to academic achievement? Hypothesis 2. It was expected that both PTS and test anxiety would have a negative relationship with academic achievement as measured by grade point average (GPA) in college. Research Question 3: Are the relationships between these three variables moderated by whether the student has deployed to a combat zone? Hypothesis 2. It was expected that the relationship between these variables may differ dependent on whether or not the student has deployed into a combat zone as a part of military service. Method Participants This study was conducted with a sample of 281 undergraduate students at senior-level public university near a large army base. Eight participants were eliminated from the sample for failing to provide demographic information. The sample was mostly female (82%) with 17% identifying as male and one percent identifying as another gender. The average age of the sample was 31. The largest ethnicity represented was White (40%), followed by African American PTSD AND TEST ANXIETY 6 (24%), Hispanic/Latinx (18%), and Asian American (2%), and Native American (1%). The remaining 15% of the students identified with more than one ethnicity. The majority of the students were civilians, with 35% (n = 96) identifying as SND, while 19% (n = 51) identified themselves as SVPD. Design and Measures PTS was measured using two separate instruments for different groups of participants. The students who identified as current or past armed servicemembers were given the PTSD Checklist – Military (PCL-M; Weathers et al., 1994), which included 17 items asking about posttraumatic symptoms related to service in the armed forces (alpha = .94). For each item, the participants rated how much they had been affected by the described symptom on a Likert scale from zero to five (M = 2.67, SD = 1.21), with zero signifying “not at all” and five indicating “extremely.” For example, one item asked about “feeling upset when something reminded you about a stressful military experience.” Students who did not identify armed servicemembers or veterans were given the PTSD Checklist – Civilian (PCL – C; Weathers et al., 1994). This scale asked participants to rate how much they were affected by post-traumatic symptoms in general on an identical scale (to the PCL-M described above) using 17 items using values from zero to five (M = 2.54, SD = 1.34; alpha = .93). Test anxiety was measured using the Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI; Taylor & Deane, 2002). The TAI had 11 items that were answered on a Likert-type scale from zero to seven (M = 3.41, SD = 1.56). GPA was measured with a single item in which the participants were asked to use a sliding bar to move to self-report their GPA anywhere between one and four (alpha = .87). PTSD AND TEST ANXIETY 7 Procedure This study was administered using the Qualtrics survey platform. Before the study began, the participants were informed and voluntarily consented to participate. The participants then began answering questions about their academic attitudes, including the TAI and other items that were included as part of the larger study. After responding the items, the participants answered several demographic questions, including questions about being an armed service member, deploying to a combat zone, and the number of combat deployments. In the last portion of the study, the participants who indicated that they had served in the armed forces then responded to the items of the PCL-M, while those who had never served responded to the items of the PCL-C. PTSD AND TEST ANXIETY 8 References American Council on Education (2018). Toolkit for Veteran Friendly Institutions. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from: https://www.acenet.edu/news-room/Documents/VeteransToolkit-2018.pdf American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th. ed.). Washington, DC: Author. Armstrong, T., Bilsky, S. A., Zhao, M., & Olatunji, B. O. (2013). Dwelling on potential threat cues: an eye movement marker for combat-related PTSD. Depression and Anxiety, 30(5), 497–502. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22115 Gonzalez, C. A. Elliott. M. (2016). Faculty attitudes and behaviors towards student veterans. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 29(1), 35–46. Retrieved from https:// eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1107471 Medley, J., Cheney, A.M., Abraham, T., Grubbs, K., Hunt, J., Lu, L.k Fortney, J.C., Curran, G.M.. (2017). The impact of the psychological sequela of trauma on veterans seeking higher education. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 30(1), 83–96. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1144620 National Center on Educational Statistics (2016). After the Post-9/11 GI Bill: A Profile of Military Service Members and Veterans Enrolled in Undergraduate and Graduate Education. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from: https://nces.ed.gov/ pubs2016/2016435.pdf PTSD AND TEST ANXIETY 9 Ranes, B., Chris Long, M. P., Usar, M., Stephanie Traynham, C., Usa, M., & Hayes, A. (2017). The influence of combat experience on psychologically healthy soldiers’ attentiveness to environmental threats. Military Medicine, 182, 1787. https://doi.org/10.7205/MILMEDD-16-00261 Schonfeld, L., Braue, L. A., Stire, S., Gum, A. M., Cross, B. L., & Brown, L. M. (2015). Behavioral health and adjustment to college life for student service members/veterans. Journal of American College Health, 63(7), 428–36. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/07448481.2014.963106 Whiteman, S. D., Barry, A. E., Mroczek, D. K., & Wadsworth, S. M. (2013). The development and implications of peer emotional support for student service members/veterans and civilian college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60(2), 265–278. https:// doi.org/10.1037/a0031650 Zhang, L. (2018). Veterans going to college: Evaluating the impact of the post-9/11 GI bill on college enrollment. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 40(1), 82–102. https:// doi.org/10.3102/0162373717724002 PTSD AND TEST ANXIETY 10 Appendix A: Tables & Figures Figure 1.
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