What area of cognitive psychology or theory you read about struck you as most important to the field of psychology as a whole;? what aspect of cognitive psychology do you feel is underexplored ;?
DUE IN 24HOURS
first discuss how you felt all of the readings, videos, discussions etc tied together in the course. After this, please address the following:
- what area of cognitive psychology or theory you read about struck you as most important to the field of psychology as a whole;
- what aspect of cognitive psychology do you feel is underexplored ;
- what theory or idea presented in the readings of the course do you feel was most interesting and why?
- How do you feel cognitive psychology will impact the future of artificial intelligence?
- how do you feel cognitive psychology integrates with another area of study outside of psychology – be specific in your rational.
Everything in this paper must be in your own words, or put in quotes and cited if from an article, textbook or outside resource of any type This should be between 3-4 pages typed
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Are Memories Really Forgotten?
Forgotten memories may still be stored in our brain.
PENFIEL (1959)
Electrical stimulation of the cortex
Stimulation of the temporal lobes with neurosurgical procedure
Led to reports of memories that patients were unable to report in normal recall
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Are Memories Really Forgotten?
Experimental evidence that forgotten memories still exist
NELSON (1971)
Even when people appear to have forgotten memories, sensitive tests can find evidence of some of them.
Sometimes we can recognize things that we cannot recall.
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Are Memories Really Forgotten?
Experimental evidence that forgotten memories still exist
JOHNSON AND COLLEAGUES (2009)
In brain-imaging study, demonstrated existence of experience records in brain that are no longer remembered
Indicated that, even though we may have no conscious memory of seeing something, aspects of how we experienced it will be retained in our brains
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The Retention Function
Memory performance systematically deteriorates with delay.
POWER LAW OF FORGETTING
Memory performance deteriorates as a power function of practice.
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Theories of Forgetting
Decay theory
Memory traces simply decay in strength with time.
Interference theory
Memory traces are replaced with interfering material.
How Interference Affects Memory
Learning additional associations to a stimulus can cause old ones to be forgotten.
The more facts associated with a concept, the slower is retrieval of any one of the facts.
Retention is strongly influenced by interfering material.
Learning additional associations to an item can cause old ones to be forgotten.
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How Interference Affects Memory: Interference with Preexisting Memories
Material learned in the laboratory can interfere with material learned outside of the laboratory.
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How Interference Affects Memory: The Controversy over Interference and Decay
SLEEP RESEARCH
Maybe less is forgotten during the period of sleep (Ekstrand 1972).
Less opportunity for experiences to interfere!
Participants better remembered material learned at night (Hockey, Davies, and Gray, 1972).
Even if they were kept up during the night and slept during the day
Early evening is the period of highest arousal.
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See J.R. Ander
How Interference Affects Memory: The Controversy over Interference and Decay
Forgetting results from both decay in trace strength and from interference from other memories.
Both models are important and both contribute to forgetting!
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Retrieval and Inference
Interference can bias a participant’s memory for a text.
SULIN AND DOOLING (1974)
In trying to remember material, people will use what they can remember to infer what else they might have studied.
They remember certain things which help them infer/conclude what might have been related
Ex: remember one concept on a psychology test might help trigger what an associated idea was if you remember the chapter the first concept was in
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Retrieval and Inference: The Interaction of Elaboration and Inferential Reconstruction
When participants elaborate on material while studying it, they tend to recall more of what they studied and also to recall inferences that they did not study.
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Retrieval and Inference: Eyewitness Testimony
SEPARATING INFERENCE FROM ACTUAL EXPERIENCE
Eyewitnesses are often inaccurate in the testimony they give.
Even though jurors accord it high weight/strongly believe eyewitnesses Subsequent information can change a person’s memory of an observed event.
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Retrieval and Inference: Eyewitness Testimony
FALSE-MEMORY SYNDROME
Individuals claim to recover memories of traumatic events that they had suppressed for years.
It is possible to create false memories by use of suggestive interview techniques (Loftus and Pickerall, 1995).
Controversy over credibility of recovered memories of childhood abuse
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Retrieval and Inference: False Memories
Serious errors of memory can occur because people fail to separate what they actually experienced from what they inferred, imagined, or were told.
The connections blend together
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Retrieval and Inference: False Memories and the Brain
THE HIPPOCAMPUS
Responds to false memories with high activation
Does not respond with higher activation to true memories that have discriminating sensory information
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Associative Structure and Retrieval: The Effects of Encoding Context
MOOD CONGRUENCE
The fact that it is easier to remember happy memories when one is in a happy state and sad memories when one is in a sad state
Teasdale and Russell (1983)
Participants recalled more of the words that matched their mood at test.
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Associative Structure and Retrieval: The Effects of Encoding Context
STATE-DEPENDENT LEARNING
People find it easier to recall information if they can return to the same emotional and physical state they were in when they learned the information.
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The Hippocampal Formation and Amnesia
AMNESIA (MEMORY LOSS)
H.M.: One of the most studied amnesic patients
Large portions of his temporal lobes were surgically removed.
He was unable to remember new events.
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The Hippocampal Formation and Amnesia
DAMAGE TO THE TEMPORAL LOBE
Korsakoff syndrome
Result of chronic alcoholism
Retrograde amnesia
Loss of memories for events that occurred before an injury
Anterograde amnesia
An inability to learn new things
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The Hippocampal Formation and Amnesia
DAMAGE TO THE TEMPORAL LOBE
Patients with damage to the hippocampal formation show both retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia.
In other words, loss of old memory and inability to form new memories
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Long-Term Memory
“Archive” of information about past events and knowledge learned
Works closely with working memory
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Long-Term Memory
Storage stretches from a few moments ago to as far back as one can remember
More recent memories are more detailed
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Implicit Versus Explicit Memory
EXPLICIT MEMORY
Knowledge that we can consciously recall
Ex: what you did for your birthday last year
IMPLICIT MEMORY
Knowledge that we cannot consciously recall but that nonetheless manifests itself in our improved performance on some task
Ex: learning how to ride a bike (we may know we know how, but not exactly when we learned) or how to swim
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Implicit Versus Explicit Memory
AMNESIC PATIENTS
Often cannot consciously recall a particular event, but will show implicit memory for the event
Ex: they might say they feel scared of a Dr. they do not remember seeing or meeting, if that Dr. gave them a painful test previously (they unconsciously remember the pain and feel scared but consciously do not know why).
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Implicit Versus Explicit Memory: Procedural Memory
PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE
Knowledge of how to perform various tasks that is often implicit
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The Many Varieties of Memory in the Brain
DECLARATIVE MEMORY
Explicit memory system that includes episodic and semantic memory
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The Many Varieties of Memory in the Brain
NONDECLARATIVE MEMORY
Implicit memory system that includes procedural skills, priming, conditioning, habituation, and sensitization
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Repetition Priming
Presentation of one stimulus affects performance on that stimulus when it is presented again
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Repetition Priming
Tulving (1982)
Presented words and then fragments to be completed
Participants completed many more primed words than new words
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Consolidation
Transforms new memories from fragile state to more permanent state
Synaptic consolidation occurs at synapses, happens rapidly
Systems consolidation involves gradual reorganization of circuits in brain
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The Varieties of Memory Proposed by Squire (1987)
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Memory and the Brain
Human memory depends heavily on frontal structures of the brain for the creation and retrieval of memories and on temporal structures for the permanent storage of these memories.
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Memory and the Brain
Brain structures are involved in the creation and storage of memory.
TEMPORAL CORTEX
Includes the hippocampus
Involves storage of new memories
PREFRONTAL BRAIN REGIONS
Responsible for the encoding of new memories and retrieval of old memories
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Modal Model of Memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
Computer as a model for human cognition
Memory is an integrated system that processes information
Acquire, store, and retrieve information
Components of memory do not act in isolation
Memory has a limited capacity
Limited space
Limited resources
Limited time
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Caption: Flow diagram for Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) model of memory. This model, which is described in the text, is called the modal model because of the huge influence it has had on memory research.
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Modal Model of Memory
Control processes: active processes that can be controlled by the person
Rehearsal
Strategies used to make a stimulus more memorable
Strategies of attention
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Modal Model of Memory: Sensory Memory
Holds large amount of information for a short period of time
Collects information
Holds information for initial processing
Fills in in the blank
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Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory
Stores small amounts of information for a brief duration
Includes both new information received from the sensory stores and information recalled from long-term memory
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Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory, when rehearsal is prevented, is about 15-20 seconds
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Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory
Proactive interference (PI): occurs when information learned previously interferes with learning new information
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Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory
Capacity of short-term memory
Digit span: how many digits a person can remember
Typical result: 5-8 items
But what is an item?
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Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory
Chunking: small units can be combined into larger meaningful units
Chunk is a collection of elements strongly associated with one another but weakly associated with elements in other chunks
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Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory
Ericcson et al. (1989)
Trained a college student with average memory ability to use chunking
had an initial digit span of 7
After 230 one-hour training sessions, could remember up to 79 digits
Chunking them into meaningful units
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Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory
How is information coded in STM?
Coding: the way information is represented
Physiological: how stimulus is represented by the firing of neurons
Mental: how stimulus or experience is represented in the mind
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Modal Model of Memory: Short-Term Memory
Auditory coding – Conrad (1964)
Participants briefly saw target letters and were asked to write them down
Errors most often occurred with letters that sounded alike
STM is auditory
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Sensory Memory Holds Information Briefly
SENSORY MEMORY
Stage of memory that registers information about the environment and holds it for a very brief period of time
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Sensory Memory: Auditory Sensory Memory
AUDITORY SENSORY STORE
Echoic memory
An echo is a brief persistence of a sound in the auditory system.
Perceptual regions of the cortex hold a brief representation of sensory information for further processing.
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A Theory of Short-Term Memory
SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM)
Proposed intermediate system in which information has to reside on its journey from sensory memory to long-term memory
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A model of memory that includes an intermediate short-term memory Information coming in from the environment is held in a transient sensory store from which it is lost, unless attended to. Attended information goes into an intermediate short-term memory with a limited capacity to hold information. The information must be rehearsed before it can move into a relatively permanent long-term memory.
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A Theory of Short-Term Memory
MEMORY SPAN
Number of elements one can immediately repeat back
Typical short-term memory span is about seven items of information (i.e., words).
SHEPARD AND TEGHTSOONIAN (1961)
Information cannot be kept in short-term memory indefinitely.
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A Theory of Short-Term Memory
DEPTH OF PROCESSING (Craik and Lockhart, 1972)
Proposes that rehearsal improves memory only if the material is rehearsed in a deep and meaningful way
Depth of processing more critical to memory than how long information is rehearsed
SHALLOW PROCESSING: Fragile memory
DEEP PROCESSING: Durable memory
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A critical assumption in this theory was that the amount of rehearsal controls the amount of information transferred to long-term memory.
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Working Memory
BADDELEY’S THEORY OF WORKING MEMORY
Memory system that provides temporary storage for information that is currently being used in some conscious capacity (Baddeley, 1986)
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Working Memory
BADDELEY’S THEORY OF WORKING MEMORY
Components of working memory
VISUOSPATIAL SKETCHPAD
System for rehearsing visual
PHONOLOGICAL LOOP
System for rehearsing verbal information
CENTRAL EXECUTIVE
System for controlling slave systems like the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop
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Working Memory
BADDELEY’S THEORY
Phonological loop consists of:
ARTICULATORY LOOP
“Inner voice” used during rehearsal of verbal information
The articulatory loop involves speech.
PHONOLOGICAL STORE
An “inner ear” that hears the inner voice and stores the information in phonological form
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Working Memory
Working memory differs from STM
STM holds information for a brief period of time
WM is concerned with the processing and manipulation of information that occurs during complex cognition
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Caption: Diagram of the three main components of Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974; Baddeley 2000) model of working memory: the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketch pad, and the central executive.
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Phonological Loop
Phonological similarity effect
Letters or words that sound similar are confused
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Phonological Loop
Word-length effect
Memory for lists of words is better for short words than for long words
Takes longer to rehearse long words and to produce them during recall
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Phonological Loop
Articulatory suppression
Prevents one from rehearsing items to be remembered
Reduces memory span
Eliminates word-length effect
Reduces phonological similarity effect for reading words
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Working Memory
WM is set up to process different types of information simultaneously
WM has trouble when similar types of information are presented at the same time
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WM and the Brain
Prefrontal cortex responsible for processing incoming visual and auditory information
Monkeys without a prefrontal cortex have difficulty holding information in WM
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Activation and Long-Term Memory
SPREADING ACTIVATION
The process by which currently attended items can make associated memories more available
Proposes that activation spreads along paths of a network
Think back to the knowledge networks in the last chapter!
One concept spreads activation to related “nodes”
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Activation and Long-Term Memory
PRIMING MEMORIES (Meyer and Schvaneveldt, 1971)
Participants judged whether pairs of items were real words.
When the pairs had an associated relationship (bread, butter), participants were faster than when unrelated.
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Factors Influencing Memory
ELABORATIVE PROCESSING
Involves creating additional information that relates and expands on what it is that needs to be remembered
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Factors Influencing Memory
ELABORATIVE PROCESSING
Memory for material improves when it is processed with more meaningful elaborations.
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Techniques for Studying Textual Material
FLASHBULB MEMORIES
Particularly good memory for events that are very important or traumatic
People claimed to have vivid memories of Kennedy’s assassination 13 years later.
Brown and Kulik (1977)
Flashbulb memories may not be as accurate as originally thought and fade with time.
McCloskey et al. (1988); Talairco and Rubin (2003)
No better than normal memories – we just feel that they are more vivid but they are now! Our mind fills in the gaps
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