After reading the module notes, are there any strengths or weaknesses in the socialist education model? How so? Discussion Question 2: Compare examples of socialist education to that of

Module 6: The Lagging American Educational System vs. Socialist Education

Module Description: In October 1957, the Soviet Union successfully launched the first space satellite, Sputnik (fellow traveler), and the United States responded by declaring a 'crisis' in American education. Crowning over a decade of mounting fears about Soviet advancements in global dominance through technological prowess, Sputnik convinced many Americans that the United States' international position was slipping and that democracy itself was threatened. Both blame and hope for rescue were directed toward the American schooling system, where young people could gain the technical knowledge and skill – the intellectual and ideological fortification – to out-perform and outwit the 'communist menace.' This module is two-fold: First, I briefly discuss America's educational dilemma in an attempt to catch socialist education. Second, I offer a glimpse of the socialist educational model.

Module Goals and Objectives: Given the opportunity, students will be able to:

1. Compare and contrast examples of socialist education compared to American education.

2. Describe the characteristics of the socialist classroom.

Module Notes – Theory and Thought of Socialist Education

Passed less than a year after Sputnik's launch, the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) was the capstone of much smaller federal, state, and corporate initiatives designed to strengthen education in defense-related subjects, especially science and mathematics. Initiatives like the NDEA point to how Cold War politics that purged radical teachers and radical-authored textbooks from classrooms simultaneously created space on school library shelves for books by these very same people. Quite a few of these people were committed Marxists, and several were current or former members of the Communist Party. For instance, Irving Adler, though barred from teaching, found that with all the subsidies available to libraries for purchasing science and math-related books, it was far more lucrative than teaching. Furthermore, he could reach a much wider audience through books than in the classroom. Science was probably the single most popular subject for American radical-socialist writers. Many of the most critically acclaimed and bestselling science books published postwar were by previously banned teachers and writers.

Was America Falling Behind?

Apparently, in the national zeal to root out the internal enemy with U.S. borders, Americans had neglected the external enemy of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc nations, which, in the postwar years, had demonstrated military, scientific, and ideological strengths and the willingness to use them: in the explosion of the Russian atomic bomb in 1949, in Korean War where communists had 'brainwashed' captured American soldiers, in the explosion of the Russian hydrogen bomb in 1953, and the invasion of Hungary in 1956.

Studies by government agencies, educational researchers, and journalists reported that many, if not most, Americans lacked basic scientific facts, had few incentives to achieve academically, and had little interest in pursuing advanced degrees and careers in the sciences. The Soviet system for training for 'internal Soviet development and external conquest was repeatedly painted as a threat of the gravest kind, and one we must face up to.' Not only was training in math and science far more rigorous in the socialist system, but a ten-year program with a strong emphasis on math and science was mandatory for all socialist children. There was little evidence that Russian and Eastern Bloc children were forced into scientific and technical careers. Still, incentives for choosing such a path were far more significant than in the United States, and the material and intangible rewards were substantial.

American youth's lack of interest in scientific careers was perhaps most disturbing to those concerned with the workforce shortage in technical fields. Despite whatever improvements could be made in teaching and whatever resources and incentives the nation could muster to make scientific careers attractive and lucrative, the fact remained that as a democracy, the United States could not compel young people to pursue careers in the sciences. One of the priorities for the U.S. government's attempt to reverse the workforce shortage in critical educational fields was 'to keep from passing on to the child, the attitude shared by many of . . . moreover, the older generation, that science is something mysterious and magical, understandably only to geniuses and freaks.' Many parents, wanting their children to be 'well-rounded,' placed greater value on their children's social success, and their athletic achievements would have dangerous consequences for the nation. As Admiral Rickover (the father of the nuclear submarine) noted in 1959, 'Everyone who is in any way unusual suffers from the arrogance of mediocre people . . . a country neglects its nerds at its peril. For it is the nerd who invents the Sputnik, not the football team captain.'

While many people, regardless of their politics, believed that it was necessary to introduce children to 'marvels of science' before it was 'too late for them to do anything about it,' a few considered what might happen if children were taught, via the scientific method, to think for themselves or, even further, to question the values implicit in corporate capitalism. Not only was an intellectual strength, that is, knowledge itself, a weapon against communism, but the scientific method itself was also seen as an ideological weapon, for it would enable children to distinguish more precisely the purity, innocence, and benevolence of the American way of life as opposed to life under communist rule.

What is Polytechnical Education (Socialist Education)?

The Soviet Union and its allies modeled their socialist education as a Marxist pedagogical contribution to educational reform. Socialist or polytechnical education was a method by which children from the outset in primary schools learn the scientific principles underlying all subjects and acquaint themselves with the handling of tools and machines to acquire abilities, habits, agility, and a communist attitude toward work, which are essential to socialist society. Marx's idea of polytechnical education to bridge the gap between mental and manual labor. The purpose was primarily ideological: "Since the traditional separation between the working class and the bourgeoisie in conditioned capitalist societies is between manual and mental work, the incorporation of the collectivized individual into a people-nation requires breaking down these classifications." The attempt to give equal status to different schooling types reflected the economic changes in salaries and wages in a communist society.

The shift to technological and scientific education is reflected in making education more practical. Socialist schools and universities partnered with farms, factories, and other enterprises in the ongoing work-study effort. However, practical education occurs outside formal schooling because of a lack of time in the formal curriculum or facilities. Activities range from zoology and biochemistry to animal husbandry and other aspects of agriculture. Ideally, outside activities helped bridge the school curriculum and the student's later life of productive activity. Adults in these professions volunteer their time, bring the necessary equipment, and usually make the session a hands-on class that requires no grades or examination.

By tying the educational experience more closely to the economy, the interest circles (students' interests in subjects) perform an essential function. Since socialist countries have forgone the use of wage incentives, interest circles provide an alternative way to inform young people about specific occupations while stimulating interest in careers likely to be needed for national development.

The Socialist Teacher

The socialist teacher is in a somewhat paradoxical situation. The community and the students highly respect them, yet they have nothing to say about the method of teaching their subject, conducting their lab experiments, or counseling a student. Moreover, the socialist teacher has no tenure rights. Teachers of history, literature, and many other social sciences have a dual task toward the school and the community. They must deliver speeches propagating the new ideas that the party promotes. No other position is as demanding as the position of a teacher. The teacher is the tool between the party and the community: the teacher must educate young minds, influence people, and explain new ideas to society.

The Ministry of Education dictates the amount of material covered during specific periods. It is expected to see the same subject covered on the same day in schools in Moscow or Siberia. The Ministry has strict orders not to deviate from the prescribed instruction lines. For this reason, ideological indoctrination has no limits. The socialist teacher must attend improvement schools each summer to be reminded of the outstanding achievements of the party and public education. Teachers are encouraged to join the party and must believe they are better trained than the American teacher.

Below is an example of how the typical socialist school system (school) was organized

School (detachment and grade) Structure

Each classroom (about 40 students) is called a detachment at the most superficial level. Each detachment has a class leader elected by the students of the school. The leader and each detachment report to the Detachment Council for the entire school. The Detachment Council comprises nine school representatives: the President, the Representative for Motivation (collective competitions), the Representative for Work, the Representative for Culture, the Representative for Study, the Representative for Sports, the Representative for Activities, the Representative for Politics, and the Representative for School.

The class leader for each classroom technically becomes a messenger in the representation process, giving the class updates on each of the areas that pertain to their classroom while also keeping the Detachment Council aware of the problems and needs of the classroom. Motivation is an integral part of socialist education. Focusing on collective (detachments/classes) competition instead of individual competition, Motivation Representatives encourage each collective (detachments/classes) to reach an ideal. This process is mainly carried out between detachments in the school setting or extracurricular activity) with the focus on completing the task set, not beating the other detachments. Ideally, all detachments achieve or win.

Below is the typical structure of the Student Government

Detachment Council (Collective)

Division and Responsibilities for Detachments (classes)

Students are given far more responsibility, voice, and vote within the socialist education system than in capitalist countries. Students elect leaders and take peer supervision seriously. More often, students would resolve arguments or incidents among themselves. The power rarely stood solely with the teacher or administrator. As a result, students exercised responsibility, leadership, and cooperation, emphasizing collective goals rather than individual ones. Academically, the class leader tried to ensure that students who did not understand the lessons got the help they needed to succeed. Socialist motivation was intended to be a win-win situation, with the desired outcome being that all students reached. The point was to draw on a learning concept by which those who understood assisted their struggling classmates academically and morally. Also, within the classroom, other students assumed leadership roles as student monitors: taking attendance, being a teacher's aide in giving their explanations, checking homework, and assisting others in assignments.

Students were also required to participate in afterschool (extracurricular activities) that might include school maintenance projects, cultivation of the school or neighborhood garden, or sports activities – all under the leadership of the class detachment leader and, more importantly, under the watchful eyes of teachers and administrators. Participation in out-of-school activities was closely monitored. Students who failed to participate in extracurricular activities were keenly aware that such decisions were recorded and limited future educational (post-high school) options. Often, students attended activities because they were focused and proud of their detachments (classes). They did not complain while cleaning the school, working in the community garden, or playing organized sports. Some of their reason for compliance included the following: 1) the workload was appropriate for the students, 2) the work crew consisted of their peers, 3) the work was shared equally, 4) the work atmosphere was casual and non-threatening with students allowed to chat with one another, and 5) their presence and participation would count toward the possibility of future study or career opportunities.

Without cultivating a political ideology, the program encouraged leadership skills. The student's self-esteem appeared reinforced because they were responsible for maintaining their school or providing for their neighborhood. They had a personal investment in making their world a better place by collecting recyclables, painting the school, participating in school maintenance, or growing fruits and vegetables – they learned how to plan and work together.

Methods of Teaching

Early Soviet educational authorities rejected almost everything the old imperial schools practiced, so the Soviets had to look abroad to solve methodological problems, especially in America. The Dalton Plan, project, and laboratory methods were all practiced in the Soviet Union, even though the details of these plans were unknown to most Soviet teachers. The Dalton Plan, for example, was understood as group learning in which the individual did not agree to master the given material – the leader was put in charge of each group of students, and their word, not testing, decided the progress or failure of the entire class.

Another problem with Soviet educators was that of grading. Many of the early Soviet teachers believed that the so-called ABC grading method was not democratic, and many schools began to use other variables of grading, such as the individual workbook, a collective diary of the class (to be kept by the students themselves), a class report, and finally teacher observations. The personal workbook was considered best since it could indicate a student's attitude toward work and society. It consisted of records kept by the student showing which articles he/she had read, which problems he/she did not understand, and the questions they needed to solve. These theories and practices were not Soviet products but foreign – predominantly American. Not until the late 1930s was the unique Soviet system developed by Anton S. Makarenko.

Makarenko's Method

Makarenko discussed the problems of the obligations of students and teachers very delicately. He saw improvements and deficiencies in the Soviet system. Under the category of defects, Makarenko lists the following:

1. There is a lack of proper order in basic and organizational instructions for the teacher.

2. The lack of discipline.

3. The lack of continuity between the educative process and managing children's problems.

4. The inconsistency of the educative process.

Makarenko says these deficiencies are more dangerous if we consider the educative process's direction and purpose. Makarenko criticized different educational methods as having no definite system or goal, existing only by chance, and being decorated by various 'entertainments' and 'progressive approaches to children.' Makarenko criticized those educators who spent 75% of their time explaining the deficiencies of education and 25% on an actual situation or activity. Makarenko, in general, tried to introduce the old Russian practices, adding to them only the communist coloring but permanently maintaining the old system of methods and procedures. The experiments used by the American progressivists were foreign to the Russian mind; therefore, they were considered harmful to Soviet society. Makarenko offered mass culture and a shared philosophy regarding ideas, subjects, teaching methods, and the general discipline problem. It is a careful elaboration of all crucial pedagogy sectors, from preschool to adulthood.

In the martial spirit of Makarenko, most, if not all, Eastern Bloc countries' teacher methodology teacher training sessions consisted of specific, strict teaching and evaluation instructions. During the 1950s, all teachers began an intensive course of study in Marxist-Leninist pedagogy, culminating in special examinations. These courses gave no special consideration to specific European countries' heritage but rather exclusively to the work of Soviet scholars through monthly theme-based training sessions. Examples of such training sessions are below.

February : Soviet Pedagogy – The Most Advanced Pedagogy

March : Dialectical Materialism and the Marxist-Leninist Party as the Foundation for All Scholarship

April : The Four Bases of Dialectics

May : The Basic Characteristics of Marxist Materialism

June-July : Dialectical Materialism and Soviet Pedagogy

September : The Marxist Dialectic as Methodological Foundation of Soviet Pedagogy

October : The Bolshevik Party of Lenin and Stalin and Its Leadership in the Field of Pedagogy

November : The Party as Productive Guide for the Theory and Practice of the Soviet School

December : School and Youth Organizations in the USSR

So, teachers were now trained to be unvarnished party propagandists. They were assisted by specially selected student assistants (Class Leaders) to share responsibility with teachers for shaping socialist consciousness in each class. This meant crudely enforcing the principles of a debased Makarenko to the letter. Such a Stalinist pedagogy effectively denied the concepts of childhood and adolescence. Socialist educators treated the child as a miniature adult; school lessons paid no attention to developmental psychology, only national political and economic goals. Unity of theory and praxis also mandated harmony between the school lesson and the student. The child was to serve the class or as a part of the lesson; the teacher was to direct the child toward the highest possible achievement, as exemplified by the lesson, which typically taught allegiance to the collective or the state. Teachers were to discourage children from following their inclinations, avoiding deviation from the government line.

Subject Matter vs. Teacher

Much has been written about the teacher's role in Soviet society and the teaching method's significance. The Soviets argue that there are no bad students – only bad teachers. In theory, the Russians insist that any child can be educated to their highest capacity if given the proper educational environment. Therefore, the teacher has a double task: indoctrinating the communist party's objectives and actual teaching. As an example, in presenting to students the political system of Soviet society, the following set of questions is used:

'What kind of political structure is better: capitalism or socialism?' 'Of course, socialism,' the

student answers. 'Now, what methods ensure the worker's power?'

'Force and violence,' answers the student, 'because until the stage of communism is reached,

the dictatorship of the worker must prevail.'

The teacher explains the capitalistic danger to Soviet society and the lower classes. There is no justice except Soviet justice, and there is no freedom except Soviet freedom – so the young child is always told. Brainwashing is a continuous process that changes form depending on the student's age. Soviet methodology in the historical and general social sciences is rather peculiar. It operates through slogans rather than on the pedagogical principles of the educative process. The teachers are constantly reminded that they are the army of communism. Many books on teacher training are published; most deal with the 'right' method, but this 'right' method is not without foreign influences.

In the late 1950s into the 1960s, Soviet educators initiated a somewhat new approach to educational matters. It was a combination of two systems: western and communist education systems. This was not new because there has always been an interest in Western education, especially American education. However, no such study was undertaken to show it was inferior to Soviet accomplishments. Soviet students pursued the original writings of educators like Dewey, James Spencer, and others approved by the Ministry of Education. According to the new Soviet approach, Pedagogy must be related to other disciplines such as philosophy, ethics, physiology, psychology, sociology, aesthetics, logic, and anthropology. Second, education should generally influence the fields mentioned above and other organizations participating in building communism. The primary concern was the professional organizations of teachers, writers, scientific workers, etc.

Below is a table divided into three main areas of teacher preparation and concentration: the general background of pedagogy, didactics, and learning theories.

​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​ Lecture Title Hours

Part I. General Background of Pedagogy:

The subject matter of Pedagogy 4

Pedagogy and Individual Development 6

The place of collectivism vs. personality 4

Goals and aims of communist education 4

System of Public Education 2

Part II. Didactics

Didactics as a theory of education and learning 2

Content of education 4

Basic educative process 4

Fundamentals of learning 4

Patterns of Learning 4

Methods of teaching (content specialty) 6

Evaluation of students 2

Part III. Theory of Education

Foundations of Education 2

General methods of education 6

Formation of communist world outlook 2

Moral education 8

Physical labor 2

Aesthetic education 4

Physical education 2

Teaching children the collective way of life 4

The leading role of the Communist Youth Organization is school collective 2

Education and the Family 4

The role of the teacher 2

Total 84 hours

The first category belongs to a brief description of pedagogy as a science. Still, most of this section is concerned with the Marxist-Leninist theories of education dealing with such issues as the development of personality (more so the individualism) and its relationship to education, the individual and the collective in communist education, the goals and task of communist education and many other communist studies.

The second category, didactics, is even more radical. The teacher must ensure that the general lines of Marxist-Leninist teaching prevail in their lesson plans and other classroom activities. Specific issues and topics are listed for each lesson. The individual teacher tries to explain the principles laid down by the higher education authorities. According to this new view, the fundamentals of any teaching are to acquire knowledge and transmit it to others. The task is first to equip students with the proper habits and help them form communist consciousness, and only then will it help students develop their capacities to learn and create something new. Again, as in any area, the Marxist-Leninist theory of learning and perception should prevail. In line with this, the plan requires adverse criticism of many bourgeois educational ideas. After covering these disciplines, attention, memory, will, emotion, and sound judgments are discussed. Other essential parts of didactics are preparing lessons, supervising students, assigning proper homework, excursions, laboratory work, and work related to the national economy. The third category is the theory of education and its 'superiority' over any other existing system. Western educators are discussed more than in any other section in this context.

Basic schools

Primary schools provide all children with the fundamentals of a general polytechnical* education divided into first and second levels (grades 1-4 and 5-8, respectively). At the first primary school level, the most important subjects are mother tongue and mathematics, contributing significantly to developing logical thinking. With elementary science, nature study, training for work, music, art, and physical education, they ensure the pupils' harmonious development at this level of primary schooling. The second level of basic education, which follows, deepens and develops general polytechnical education for the scientific world, the feeling of collective involvement in work, and the pupils' independence and social responsibility. The unified educational program comprises comprehensive social science, mathematics, and natural science subjects. By providing appropriate conditions, all pupils can develop their unique talents and individual interests through elective subjects, optional subjects, and hobby groups.

*Polytechnical Education is a term associated with the socialist theory and implementation of education.

Secondary schools

Secondary schools form a unified entity with primary schools in their educational aims and content. They provide secondary education to all primary school leavers and complete secondary school education to increase youth. Secondary school education's content is general polytechnical and technical (vocational) education. Public polytechnical education is common to all secondary school types, whether secondary vocational schools, grammar schools, technical schools, or conservatories.

Secondary-level education is mainly available through secondary vocational schools, which provide a complete secondary school education in four-year courses. However, three- and two-year courses in secondary-level education are also given. They are established and administered by individual ministries, central authorities, and national committees in enterprises, production units, associations, and other organizations. Secondary vocational schools fulfill the function of educational institutions of the socialist state. Grammar schools are general education and polytechnical schools that provide youth with general polytechnical and necessary technical preparation for higher education, certain skilled occupations, and technical and economic functions that place higher demands on intellectual aptitudes, namely in semi-automated and automated units. Secondary technical schools' task is to train students in a broad technical field to perform specialist work, especially in technical, economic, social, educational, cultural, and other skilled occupations. Various forms of study courses are provided, as appropriate.

Out-of-School (Non-formal) Education

The development of the personality, intellect, attitudes and convictions, aesthetic awareness, physical fitness, etc., continues outside the school and working process. The opportunities for this development of every individual grow together with economic and social development, which results in a more significant amount of leisure. In advanced socialism, favorable conditions are created for relaxation by organizing active forms of recreation, enlightenment, self-education, art development, and other creative hobbies. It is the function of the school to unity with such after-school facilities as school clubs, young pioneers' and youth centers, people's schools of art, language schools, and people's schools of languages to serve the all-round development of the potential of children and youth, their social activity, interest in work, science, technology, art, sports, etc.

After-school facilities, school clubs, young pioneers' hostels, and centers for young technicians, nature conservationists, and tourists cater to youth and children's hobby activities and education outside the school. Their programs take account of the pupils' age, follow up on the school's work, and help fulfill the educational aims and objectives of the school, the Socialist Union of Youth, the Young Pioneers' Organization, and the family. As state educational institutions, Young Pioneers and Youth Centers are regular workplaces of the Organization of Young Pioneers of the Socialist Union of Youth. People's art schools allow young, talented pupils to develop their aesthetic interests and abilities and provide education fundamentals in music, fine arts, dancing, and drama. The essential task of education in these fields is to enable children and young people to acquire knowledge and skills and satisfy their personal and social needs; pupils with outstanding talent are given further artistic growth. In their educational role, people's schools of art build on the grounding in aesthetic education, which nurse

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