Imagine that you have been assigned to conduct a netnography (digital ethnography) for your favorite brand, nonprofit or organization. You may choose any that you love, including one that you work for. Identify a single social media post or series of posts to analyze.
For this assignment, imagine that you have been assigned to conduct a netnography (digital ethnography) for your favorite brand, nonprofit or organization. You may choose any that you love, including one that you work for. Identify a single social media post or series of posts to analyze. Read the posts and consider both the comments and how the brand interacted. (Tip: This assignment is more effective if you choose a post that includes a significant level of engagement, or series of posts that show a conversation between the brand and its audience.)
Describe/Critique:
A description of the consumer cohort based on your research/analysis.
A theme that emerged from the data that you analyzed. Be sure to reference this week’s lesson. (SEE ATTACHED FOR LESSON)
Analysis of the sentiment with examples. Include visuals for illustration purposes.
The Megaphone Effect and how that can impact the organization/brand’s image.
A marketing suggestion that you would make based on what you learned.
The advantages/disadvantages of a netnography and how it relates to the ethnographic approach discussed in Fusch et al. (SEE ATTACHED)
Logistics
Minimum 5 pages not including cover and reference pages. NOTE: Per the grading rubrics, just fulfilling the minimum requirements does not qualify for full credit. Students are also expected to “exceed” the minimum requirements for discussions and assignments to be considered as performing at the top of the class.
Address all aspects discussed within the Guidelines.
Do not number your answers or pad your paper by overusing images and including long quotes. These short writing assignments should read (and look) like reports and be primarily your unique, academically-supported analysis.
Cite from at least three references. At least one should be from the assigned readings.
Follow APA style for in-text citations and sources cited as “References” at the end of your report. Videos, images, and graphs should be sourced and referenced.
Include section headers throughout your paper.
Your paper should be a Word document, double-spaced, one-inch margins, 12-point Times New Roman font.
Sub-heads are allowed.
Avoid fragmented sentences with bullet points.
APA Quick Reminders:
Alphabetize the reference list.
Limit capitalization to the first word of the title of an article and book and any proper names within it.
Add italics to the names of books and the names of scholarly journals and prominent publications and blogs.
Give the name of the publisher and edition when citing books. Our class text should look like this:
Solomon, M. (2020). Consumer behavior: Buying, having and being. (13th ed.). Pearson Education, Inc.
In-text citation: In general, in-text citations go to the left of the period.
Ex. This is a sentence (Citation, Year).
Requirements: 5 Pages not including the cover pages and reference page
Week 6 Lesson: Groups & Social Media / Income & Social Class / Ethnographic Analysis & Beyond
Welcome to Lesson 6. This week we’ll discuss consumers as groups (e.g., reference groups, brand communities, opinion leaders) and the decisions made by families and children.
What is a Reference Group?
Solomon (Solomon, 2017, p. 394) defines a reference group as “an actual or imaginary individual or group conceived of as having significant relevance upon an individual’s evaluations, aspirations, or behavior.” What kinds of reference groups do you belong to? Are you on a sports team? Do you belong to a civic or professional organization? Do you volunteer with a particular organization?
Important questions for marketers to ask concerning reference groups include:
What types of influence do groups exert on individuals?
How does group influence vary across products and brands?
How can marketers use the concept of groups to develop effective marketing strategies?
Groups that have frequent personal contact are known as primary groups while those with limited interpersonal contact are called secondary groups. Some groups such as fraternities, alumni associations and country clubs require memberships. Others, like aspiration groups (i.e., any group an individual wishes to belong to, like a recreational sports team), do not.
Brand Communities
A brand community is a non-geographically bound group of consumers who share a set of social relationships based on usage or interest in a brand or product. Brand communities are important because they can add value to the ownership of the brand/product and build intense loyalty. These communities are most relevant for high-involvement, activity-based products and for brands with at least some degree of uniqueness.
Unlike other kinds of communities, members of brand communities usually don’t live near each other. They may be spread across the country or even across the world, except when they meet for brief periods at organized events (like Harley’s Sturgis Motorcycle Rally or Adobe Summit ) that center around the brands they love.
Week 6 Lesson: Groups & Social Media / Income & Social Class / Ethnographic Analysis & Beyond
Group Influences on the Consumption Process
Even if you’re not a member of a brand community, we all conform to certain groups and we normally conform to them without even thinking about it. For example, if you go to dinner with a group of co-workers and everyone orders dessert, you might be more likely to order dessert as well. Likewise, you probably dress more casually lounging at home with your family than you do for work.
Group influence varies across situations, but there are basically three types: informational, normative, and identification.
Informational Influence
Informational I nfluence occurs when individuals acquire information shared by group members. For example, you may see Taylor Swift on TV explaining the benefits of a fragrance, and therefore might be tempted to give the product a try.
Normative Influence
Normative I nfluence occurs when an individual conforms to group expectations to gain approval or avoid disapproval. Most teenagers, for instance, are very impressionable; if one member of a clique is wearing Abercrombie & Fitch because of the image the brand conveys, others in the group will likely want to do so as well.
Identification Influence
Identification I nfluence exists when an individual identifies with group norms as a part of his/her self-concept and identity. For example, if one becomes a member of the Catholic Church, he/she will often embrace the morals and values of the church as his/her own and incorporate them into their lifestyle if they’re not already present.
Communication Within Groups
Communication within groups is a significant source of information about certain products. It’s a particularly important source when an individual has a high level of purchase involvement and a low level of product knowledge. This is because the consumer is likely to seek information from a more knowledgeable group member, known as an opinion leader or influencer.
In general, opinion leaders and/or influencers:
Are sought out for information and also volunteer information.
Are product- category or activity- group specific.
Tend to have greater product knowledge.
Tend to have more exposure to relevant media.
Tend to have more gregarious personalities than their followers.
Tend to have demographics similar to their followers.
Marketers attempt to identify opinion leaders and influencers primarily through their media habits and social activities. They then can be used for marketing research, product sampling, retailing/personal selling, advertising, and creating buzz.
Week 6 Lesson: Groups & Social Media / Income & Social Class / Ethnographic Analysis & Beyond
Creating Buzz
Buzz is word-of-mouth (WOM) advertising that is viewed as authentic and is usually generated by loyal consumers. When a celebrity wears a fabulous dress or endorses a specific product it creates buzz and, thus, quickly stimulates sales.
But celebrities aren’t the only ones who can create buzz. In recent years, Nike, Microsoft, and many other companies have made attempts—both successful and unsuccessful—to increase awareness of their products/brands using the buzz method.
The semi-underground techniques that comprise buzz marketing have been increasing in popularity for several reasons:
Buzz is relatively inexpensive since there are no media buys or creative costs.
Access to the Internet means that marketers can reach just about anyone at any time.
Buzz marketing attempts to make each encounter with a consumer appear to be a unique event.
Innovations
Groups greatly affect the diffusion of innovations, which are products or styles that are perceived as new by consumers. Innovations vary in the degree of behavioral change required and the rate at which they are diffused.
The first purchasers of a new product or service are called innovators. Those who follow over time are known, in order, as:
Early adopters
Early majority
Late majority
Laggards
Each group differs in terms of personality, age, education, and reference group membership. These characteristics help marketers identify and appeal to different classes of adopters at different stages of an innovation’s diffusion.
Opinion leaders are people who are knowledgeable about a product and whose opinions are highly regarded. These consumers tend to influence other consumer choices. Specific opinion leaders can be hard to identify, but marketers who know their general characteristics can try to target them in traditional advertising. In the social media realm, opinion leaders or power-users are easier to find and data analytical tools help to quantify their influence.
Finally, the time it takes for an innovation to spread from innovators to laggards is affected by several factors:
The type of innovation decision required.
The extent of the marketing effort.
The strength of the felt need.
The compatibility of the innovation with existing values.
The relative advantage.
The complexity of the innovation.
The ease in observing usage of the innovation.
The ease in trying the innovation.
The perceived risk in trying the innovation.
Week 6 Lesson: Groups & Social Media / Income & Social Class / Ethnographic Analysis & Beyond
Sharing Interests in Products or Services
Brand communities unite consumers who share a common passion for a product. Brandfests, where companies organize to encourage this kind of community, can build brand loyalty, and reinforce group membership.
We often buy or use products to be consistent with what other people do, and we conform to the desires of others for two reasons:
We take others’ behaviors as evidence of the correct ways to act and, in doing so, we conform because of informational social influence.
We attempt to satisfy the expectations of others or be accepted by the group. I n doing so, we conform because of normative social influence.
Group members will sometimes do things they would not do alone because their identities have become merged with the group.
Word-of-Mouth
The opinions, good and bad, of everyday consumers, have also increased in influence and are sometimes more persuasive than advertising. Much of what we learn about products and brands is through word-of-mouth (WOM). Online social technologies have accelerated the influence and impact of WOM. Social media amplifies exposure to consumer-generated content through various reference groups.
Virtual consumption communities unite consumers who share a common bond—enthusiasm about or knowledge of a specific product or service. Sometimes this reference group consists of people we actually know, or it could be an aspirational membership group of people we admire. Viral marketing enlists individuals to tout products and services, while blogging allows consumers to post thoughts and opinions about products, brands, and companies. These consumption communities can play an important role in collective value creation where brand use, social networking, community engagement, and impression management all come together.
Obviously, social networking changes the way we think about marketing. Companies and consumers are increasingly interacting directly with one another, as members post information and make contact with others who share similar interests and opinions. Much of the time these interests revolve around brands, products, and services.
Social object theory suggests that social networks are more powerful when there is a way to activate relationships among people and objects (Solomon, 2020). Some marketers tap into the wisdom of the crowd (i.e., the general public) for informal research and innovation. This approach also referred to as crowd-sourcing, is founded on the belief that groups can be smarter than the smartest people in them. For example, can the crowd predict your next product innovation or create your next successful TV ad?
Week 6 Lesson: Groups & Social Media / Income & Social Class / Ethnographic Analysis & Beyond
Social Class
A social class system is the overall rank of individuals in a society; people who are grouped within the same social class are generally equal in terms of their incomes, occupations, lifestyles and, to a lesser extent, type of residence. All societies can be roughly divided into “Haves” and “Have-Nots.”
Status crystallization is the extent to which different indicators of an individual’s status (e.g., education, income) are consistent with one another. Because so much of what happens in the world today happens online, people who do not have online access can be at a disadvantage. Despite greater access, this digital divide is still a reality.
It is useful for marketers to understand the general characteristics of the major social classes. Solomon describes American society in terms of seven major categories:
The Upper-Upper Class—the “capital S” society world of inherited wealth
The Lower-Upper Class—the newer social elite, drawn from current professionals
The Upper-Middle Class—the college graduate managers and professionals whose lifestyles center on private clubs, charitable causes, and the arts
The Middle Class—average pay, white-collar workers and their white-collar friends who live on the better side of town
The Working Class—average pay, blue-collar workers and their blue-collar friends who lead a working-class lifestyle whatever their income, education, background, and job
The Upper-Lower Class—a lower-status group of people who are working but are not on welfare; their living standard is just above poverty
The Lower-Lower Class—the lowest-status group, usually on welfare. This group is visibly poverty-stricken and are often out of work or have minimum-wage jobs or less.
In addition to economic capital, class can be divided by social capital that is earned through association with organizational affiliations and networks. So many professionals have taken up golf because they know this is where business happens.
Today, so many of us have joined various social media platforms (such as LinkedIn and Twitter) for the same reason. Online social capital is acquired through tactics such as recommendations, reviews, likes, comments, shares, tweets, and re-tweets.
Status symbols help us let other people know what class we are in. Conspicuous consumption refers to people displaying visual evidence of their wealth. Consumers display these status markers in different ways. Some products have large recognizable emblems and others have no logo at all so that only “people in the know” get it.
Week 6 Lesson: Groups & Social Media / Income & Social Class / Ethnographic Analysis & Beyond
Consumer Spending and Economic Behavior
A person’s social class impacts what he or she does with money and on how consumption choices reflect one’s place in society. Consumers typically purchase products as markers or signs of their social class. These products act as status symbols to allow others to know which class they belong to. The average American’s standard of living continues to improve because of increases in the number of women who are in the workforce and increases in educational attainment.
Consumer confidence is a regularly reported index and is the extent to which people are optimistic or pessimistic about the future health of the economy. It influences the amount of discretionary income consumers will pump into the economy. The more confident they are, the more they are likely to spend and vice versa. It is monitored as part of behavioral economics, which is concerned with the “human” side of economic decisions.
Demographics
American society is described in part by its demographics, which include a population’s size, distribution, and structure (i.e., age, income, education, and occupation). Demographics are a powerful tool for marketers who frequently segment markets based on a combination of two or more demographic descriptors.
The U.S. Census Bureau is an important resource for demographic data on families, and numerous private companies collect additional statistics on specific population groups as well. The changes and trends revealed in demographic studies are of significant interest to marketers because the data can be used to locate and predict the size of markets for many products from home mortgages to lawn mowers or diapers.
Subjective Demographic Measures
In addition to actual measures of age and income, subjective demographic measures can provide a further understanding of consumption. One popular subjective measure is cognitive age, defined as how old a person feels (rather than how old they actually are).
Another subjective demographic measure, subjective discretionary income, which measures how much money consumers feel they have available for nonessentials, is actually a better predictor of some purchases than actual income.
Netnography
A form of ethnography, netnography is a research method used for studying consumer culture and behavior online. Coined by Robert Kozinets, netnography is “a qualitative research method by nature,” and offers “greater insight into the virtual space in relation to consumers’ needs and wants, choices, symbolic meanings and more.” (Xun & Reynolds, 2010). There are many ways in which a netnography can be conducted, and that number continues to grow. Some standard methods include: blog analysis, social media post or social media account analysis (i.e. Facebook, Instagram, TikTok), examination of behavior in online forums (i.e. Trip Advisor, Yelp), analysis of online teaching and student responses, group interactions in video call software (i.e. Chorus, Zoom), and online webinars.
Netnography bears many strengths for marketers, including (Xun & Reynolds, 2010):
Accessibility to a broader cohort of participants
Greater continuity
Authentic and natural data
More cost-effective and time-saving than traditional ethographies
Greater capacity and flexibility for observation
In-depth understanding of communitites
Ability to explore sensitive topics
In turn, there are some challenges to netnographies:
Participant authenticity
Demands high-level of researcher expertise
Underdeveloped analytical toolkit
Potential for poor quality of textual discourse
Ethical sensitivities
In the next section, you’ll learn about ethnographic analysis and the steps one takes to process and interpret research data. As netnography is a form of ethnography, this process of intepretation aligns. While netnography is not a one-size-fits-all method, there are some general steps a research should take when conducting a netnography:
Define research scope and identify questions to solve for
Identify online field sites (where)
Collect data
Analyze and interpret data
Report and share findings
You can learn more about the purpose and outcomes of netnogrpahies from Robert Kozinets in the video below:
Week 6 Lesson: Groups & Social Media / Income & Social Class / Ethnographic Analysis & Beyond
Ethnographic Analysis
Ladner (2014) says ethnographic analysis includes two components:
Describe the data
Interpret the data
The latter can be more difficult than the former for some researchers. Ladner (2014) says one must be grounded in theory (which is why studying consumer behavior is important) to effectively transition from description to interpretation. Ethnographers are primarily interested in how organizations or institutions , not in products or services, but how those items affect users’ lives. Private-sector ethnography can help uncover areas for improvement based on the description and interpretation of the data.
The process of interpretation begins with three steps:
Reduce
Visualize
Draw conclusions
Ladner (2014) provides multiple exercises and data tables to explain how those three steps can be met. In summary, they are combined to meet the same end goal, which is answering the “so what?”. Ethnographers use reduction and visualization to explain and draw conclusions. This is done by understanding the client’s industry and the social lives of the client’s consumers. Researchers approach this process as follows:
Divide participants’ responses by sentiment into positive and negative, then group the data into themes under each category. Here, the research may provide example quotes to illustrate how the theme manifested in the data.
To create the themes, imagine yourself taking every utterance expressed during your study and putting it into buckets. Once you have everything grouped into categories, reflect on what all the utterances have in common and voilà! you have identified a theme. The themes then lead to insights that connect to possible actions.
Finally, once the first two steps are complete and the researcher showcases what was in the data, the researchers provide insights and recommendations for action.
Beyond Ethnography
Ladner (2014) advises marketers to look at social life with an “ethnographic imagination.” That means, don’t make assumptions about the social world. Look at it, instead, from the consumer’s perspective, seeking out “regularity, cyclicality, and ritual in everyday life.” This can be done by applying the ethnographic imagination to other forms of research. Always be mindful of the participant’s perspective.
While literature reviews are standard components of quantitative research, Ladner (2014) said they should at least be considered for guidance in ethnography. Literature reviews will expand your knowledge about the people, places, and products you are observing. She also gives suggestions and opinions on online ethnography, focus groups, and usability labs. While those are all helpful forms of qualitative research and can complement ethnographies when the conditions are right, they may not be considered true ethnography on their own.
References
Ladner, S. (2014). Practical ethnography: A guide to doing ethnography in the Private Sector.
Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast press.
Solomon, M. (2020). Consumer behavior: Buying, having and being. (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Swift, T. (2014, December 15). Behind the fragrance, Taylor Swift Incredible Things featuring Taylor Swift (behind the scenes) [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BxZi6jC2JAI
U.S. Census Bureau. (2012). Statistical abstract of the United States. Retrieved December 9, 2012, from: http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/cats/population
USC Annenberg (2018, February 27). Netnography: Robert Kozinets [Video]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/F8axfYomJn4
Xun, J., Reynolds, J. (2010 February 01). Applying netnography to market research: The case of the online forum. J Target Meas Anal Mark 18, 17–31. https://doi.org/10.1057/jt.2009.29
The Qualitative ReportVolume 22|Number 3How To Article 163-26-2017How to Conduct a Mini-Ethnographic Case Study:A Guide for Novice ResearchersPatricia I. Fusch Ph.D.Walden University,[email protected] E. FuschWalden University,[email protected] R. NessWalden University, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA,[email protected] this and additional works at:http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqrPart of theBusiness Administration, Management, and Operations Commons,Business andCorporate Communications Commons,Critical and Cultural Studies Commons,Entrepreneurialand Small Business Operations Commons,Family, Life Course, and Society Commons,HumanResources Management Commons,International and Intercultural Communication Commons,International Business Commons,Interpersonal and Small Group Communication Commons,Labor Relations Commons,Leadership Studies Commons,Organizational Behavior and TheoryCommons,Organizational Communication Commons,Organization Development Commons,Other Anthropology Commons,Other Social and Behavioral Sciences Commons,Other SociologyCommons,Place and Environment Commons,Politics and Social Change Commons,Quantitative,Qualitative, Comparative, and Historical Methodologies Commons,Social and CulturalAnthropology Commons,Social Statistics Commons, and theSociology of Culture CommonsThis How To Article is brought to you for free and open access by the The Qualitative Report at NSUWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in TheQualitative Report by an authorized administrator of NSUWorks. For more information, please [email protected] APA CitationFusch, P. I., Fusch, G. E., & Ness, L. R. (2017). How to Conduct a Mini-Ethnographic Case Study: A Guide for Novice Researchers.The Qualitative Report,22(3), 923-941. Retrieved fromhttp://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol22/iss3/16
How to Conduct a Mini-Ethnographic Case Study: A Guide for NoviceResearchersAbstractThe authors present how to construct a mini-ethnographic case study design with the benefit of anethnographic approach bounded within a case study protocol that is more feasible for a student researcherwith limited time and finances. The novice researcher should choose a design that enables one to best answerthe research question. Secondly, one should choose the design that assists the researcher in reaching datasaturation. Finally, the novice researcher must choose the design in which one can complete the study within areasonable time frame with minimal cost. This is particularly important for student researchers. One can blendstudy designs to be able to use the best of each design that can mitigate the limitations of each as well. Theauthors are experienced ethnographers who currently chair dissertation committees where a student haschosen a mini-ethnographic case study design.KeywordsCulture, Ethnography, Mini-Ethnography, Case Study Design, Triangulation, Data SaturationCreative Commons LicenseThis work is licensed under aCreative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 4.0 License.This how to article is available in The Qualitative Report:http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol22/iss3/16
The Qualitative Report 2017 Volume 22, Number 3, How To Article 2, 923-941 How to Conduct a Mini-Ethnographic Case Study: A Guide for Novice Researchers Patricia I. Fusch, Gene E. Fusch, and Lawrence R. Ness Walden University, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA The authors present how to construct a mini-ethnographic case study design with the benefit of an ethnographic approach bounded within a case study protocol that is more feasible for a student researcher with limited time and finances. The novice researcher should choose a design that enables one to best answer the research question. Secondly, one should choose the design that assists the researcher in reaching data saturation. Finally, the novice researcher must choose the design in which one can complete the study within a reasonable time frame with minimal cost. This is particularly important for student researchers. One can blend study designs to be able to use the best of each design that can mitigate the limitations of each as well. The authors are experienced ethnographers who currently chair dissertation committees where a student has chosen a mini-ethnographic case study design. Keywords: Culture, Ethnography, Mini-Ethnography, Case Study Design, Triangulation, Data Saturation One of the most important components of the work is the study design. One can have a well written Problem Statement, conceptual framework, Literature Review, and other sub-sections; however, as Marshall and Rossman (2016) stated, the researcher should choose the design that has the best chance of answering the research questions. For some, a phenomenological study design may be optimal because of the nature of the participants as well as exploring the lived experiences of others (Marshall & Rossman, 2016). For others, a case study design would be best to identify operational links between events over time (Andrade, 2009; Baxter & Jack, 2008; Yin, 2014). Further, novice researchers might consider ethnography to explore the feelings, beliefs, and meanings of relationships between people as they interact within their culture or as they react to others in response to a changing phenomenon (Fields & Kafai, 2009). The novice researcher should choose a design that enables one to best answer the research question (Fusch & Ness, 2015). Secondly, one should choose the design that assists the researcher in reaching data saturation. Finally, the researcher must choose the design in which one can complete the study within a reasonable time frame with minimal cost. This is particularly important for student researchers. As one considers how to conduct the research, it is best to keep in mind the different designs that will have an impact on the research. Selecting a research topic is much more than deciding what one wants to study. It must also consider how one will conduct the study that takes into account any time, energy, and financial constraints for students in a doctoral program. An appropriate research study design is the path to a well-written scholarly rich doctoral study; hence, the secret to writing an excellent proposal and study. Moreover, the methodology used within the qualitative research paradigm must best address the research problem (Denzin, 2009; Marshall & Rossman, 2016). One purpose of a study is to advance the theory (Imenda, 2014), which can be done through either filling a gap (Vlok, 2012) or confirming already existing evidence (Ayoko & Pekerti, 2008). Advancing the theory then accomplished by an exhaustive literature review, an empirical study to gather the evidence, and then comparing the
924 The Qualitative Report 2017 existing body of knowledge to the study results (Chernyak-Hai & Tziner, 2014; Secomb & Smith, 2011). The overall purpose of any study is this: to answer the research question. Ethnography Qualitative researchers explore how people make sense of their world. A qualitative researcher seeks to define and interpret unclear phenomena through non-numerical methods of measurement that focus on meaning and insight (Kakabadse & Steane, 2010). Exploratory research designs are conducted to clarify ambiguity and discover potential such as new product development (Kurt, Inman, & Argo, 2011) as well as ideas for later research. Qualitative research techniques help researchers define and interpret the ambiguities that exploratory research designs address (Thomas & Quinlan, 2014). Exploratory research can include interpretations of information gathered during investigations that consist of unstructured interviews, in-depth interviews, and direct observation of people, places, and phenomena (Dowlatshahi, 2010; Mansourian, 2008). Finally, exploratory research is used when the problem statement is unclear or inarticulate (Dowlatshahi, 2010). Ethnography is “the description and interpretation of a culture or social group” (Holloway et al., 2010, p. 76); it is an in-depth study of a culture and studies everyday behavior of participants. Ethnography began with the ancient Greeks and Romans in their descriptions of the Punic Wars and the Civil Wars (Holloway et al., 2010). The current paradigm wars between quantitative and qualitative research appear to be over and that presently the two methods complement each other rather than in opposition to each other (Holloway et al., 2010). Moreover, the concepts of validity and reliability have different meanings for the two (Holloway et al., 2010). Furthermore, fieldwork is an important component of qualitative work as the researchers becomes immersed in the culture being studied (Holloway et al., 2010). Finally, Holloway et al. (2010) wrote of the importance of triangulation to ensure reliability and validity of the data and results, the need and prevalence of gatekeepers, the importance of key informants, and the ethical concerns of covert observation and the appropriate use of the word “I” to signal the researcher’s involvement in the field and subsequent influence on data collection and analysis. Constructivists posit that individuals contrive knowledge, understanding, and meaning from interactions within the world (Highfield & Bisman, 2012). Constructivist researchers rely on feedback from participants to extrapolate inductive interpretations. Furthermore, the world is made of multiple realities rather than a static state; therefore, all realities are relevant and valid (Heit & Rotello, 2010; Highfield & Bisman, 2012). A qualitative approach is often a constructivist worldview that consists of ethnography and observation of behavior, wherein the researcher seeks to establish the meaning of a phenomenon from the views of the participants to identify shared meaning, culture, and behavior. Constructivism includes the generation of theory to understand. Ethnography is within the field of anthropology (Fusch, Fusch, Booker, & Fusch, 2016). The field of anthropology is the forgotten science of behavioral studies due to factors specific to this discipline (Fusch et al., 2016). Anthropology is an inexact science with no formal rules, a combination of art and science, due to its emphasis on ethnography (Fusch et al., 2016). The anthropologist becomes the participant/observer in the studied culture, looking out from the participants’ eyes, to study and better understand humans and human activity (Fusch, 2013). Particularly, research involves observing and interacting using qualitative methods as opposed to using quantitative statistical models in other disciplines (Fusch, 2013). Perhaps anthropology’s greatest contribution to the concept of Organizational Behavior theory and research is its emphasis on the ability to facilitate understanding between peoples in other countries or organizations (Fusch, 2013), by noting differences in values, attitudes, and
Patricia Fusch, Gene Fusch, and Lawrence Ness 925 behavior (Fusch, 2013). Rather than focusing on the individual, as in other disciplines, the focus here is on the macro level, as in group processes and organization. This is particularly important in today’s workplace as people and organizations learn to manage diversity and globalization, whether working in another country or becoming a member of a virtual team (Fusch, 2013). Ethnography as a research method is also used in medical studies as well as marketing research (Kelly & Gibbons, 2008; Mendez, 2009; Swinghurst, Greenhalgh, Russell, & Myall, 2011). For example, integrated marketing communications (IMC) is a comprehensive plan that combines a variety of communications disciplines for maximum impact in the marketplace (Mendez, 2009). Using such a 360-degree view approach to customer contact with a company, marketers present a consistent and clear message “communicated through different channels to produce one same result” (Mendez, 2009, p. 636). In this way, companies can employ a holistic method that surrounds a consumer with the firm’s products and integrates their goods or services within the consumer’s lifestyle (Mendez, 2009). Ethnography is a qualitative research design aimed at exploring the cultural interactions and meanings in the lives of a group of people (Barbour, 2010). For qualitative field research, ethnography involves learning the feelings, beliefs, and meanings of relationships between people as they interact within their culture or as they react to others in response to a changing phenomenon, for the research takes place within the culture being studied (Fields & Kafai, 2009). The researcher operates between multiple worlds engaging in research, which includes the cultural world of the study participants as well as the world of one’s own perspective (Dibley, 2011). A researcher’s cultural and experiential background will also contain biases, values, and ideologies that can affect the interpretation of a study (Bernard, 2012). It then becomes imperative that interpretation of the cultural phenomena represent that of participants and not of the researcher (Dibley, 2011). Hearing and understanding the perspective of others may be one of the most difficult dilemmas that face the researcher (Fields & Kafai, 2009). The better a researcher is able to recognize his/her personal view of the world and to discern the presence of personal lenses, the better one is able to hear and interpret the behavior and reflections of others (Fields & Kafai, 2009). Also, ethnographic research is particularly susceptible to researcher bias because the researcher is the primary data collection instrument (Jackson, 1990; Marshall & Rossman, 2016). For qualitative field research, ethnography involves learning the feelings, beliefs, and meanings of relationships between people as they interact within their culture or as they react to others in response to a changing phenomenon for the research takes place within the culture being studied (Dennis, 2010). The researcher enters the culture and becomes the primary data collection instrument (Jackson, 1990) in an effort to understand the culture and then disseminates the researcher’s interpretations to those outside the culture (Amerson, 2011). Mini-ethnography. A mini-ethnography, also known as a focused ethnography, is used when a field under investigation focuses on a specific or a narrow area of inquiry (White, 2009), particularly when time or monetary constraints are evident. Mini-ethnographies are prevalent within the medical field as well as marketing research and generally occur in less time than that of a full-scale ethnography (White, 2009) and range in time frames of weeks (Alfonso, Nickelson, & Cohen, 2012), to less than a year (Robillard, 2010; Sandall, 2010; Yang et al., 2011). The intent of mini-ethnography is for a researcher to understand the cultural norms, values, and roles as pertaining to what is remembered by participants (White, 2009) as opposed to phenomenology which addresses lived experience, grounded theory which identifies new theory to explain phenomenon, or content analysis which studies human communication including websites, newspapers, paintings, or books (Engward, 2013; Erlingsson & Brysiewicz, 2013).
926 The Qualitative Report 2017 Typically, the classic ethnographic study can take years to complete because the researcher must become enmeshed in the culture in order to obtain the type of data the researcher wants (Storesund & McMurray, 2009). Culture data is much more complex than one’s usual data from a study (Storesund & McMurray, 2009). Traditional ethnography can take a great deal of time to accomplish, which is why it is not encouraged as a design choice for doctoral students (Storesund & McMurray, 2009). The time length (and finances to stay in the field) is probably why the mini-ethnography came into being (Storesund & McMurray, 2009). Mini-ethnographies can be conducted within a week, a month, or up to a year (Storesund & McMurray, 2009). Data saturation is somewhat relative with an ethnographic design depending on the length of the study because the study is typically on-going for a number of years (Fusch, 2013). With a mini-ethnography, of course, data saturation is reached far sooner because the research is bounded in time and space by a case study design (Fusch, 2013). Case Study Qualitative case study design evolved out of ethnographic design—the first qualitative study design which originated with Herodotus and Thucydides in ancient Greece. In an answer to the paradigm wars in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Robert Yin responded by structuring case study design as a mixed methods approach that included elements of both qualitative and quantitative methods. Case studies are the preferred strategy used by researchers when asking how, what, or why questions (Amerson, 2011; Andrade, 2009; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2014). These types of studies identify operational links between events over time (Andrade, 2009; Baxter & Jack, 2008; Yin, 2014) and bound the study in time and space. Case studies may be exploratory, explanatory, or descriptive and may involve one organization and location or multiple organizations and locations for a comparative case study design (Yin, 2014). Contemporary case study design is much like historical case study design—both have specific boundaries, but within those boundaries there is a great deal of room for personal design: interviews, direct observation, document review, focus group sessions, journaling, participant observation, and more (Amerson, 2011). Stake and Yin. Stake (2010) took a somewhat nuanced approach to the case study design and used the conceptual framework as a guide (Stake, 2010). For the novice researcher, it is a great beginning to the case study design (Stake, 2010). Moreover, Yin (2014) does tend to go into a lot of detail that most novice researchers could find overwhelming and not particularly useful. Ultimately, Stake is a good beginning and Yin may be more applicable as one’s understanding of the case study design grows (Stake, 2010; Yin, 2014). Either way, both are excellent seminal sources as support for the proposal and study. Why Choose a Blended Design: Mini-Ethnography and Case Study Design One can blend study designs to be able to use the best of each design that can mitigate the limitations of each as well. Blended designs use the best of both worlds. A mini-ethnographic case study design uses data collection methods from both designs yet bounds the research in time and space. This type of blended design also allows researchers to explore causality links, which is not typical for ethnographies. Finally, the use of a mini-ethnographic case study design enables researchers to generate as well as study theory in real world applications. In contrast, mixed methods is often described as methodological pluralism in that the use of both will result in a broader perspective of the research topic (Azorin & Cameron, 2010) as opposed to what are known as mono-methods—qualitative or quantitative (Baran, 2010).
Patricia Fusch, Gene Fusch, and Lawrence Ness 927 Often a mixed methods case study will begin with a qualitative method to identify and narrow down the problem. Then the quantitative method is used to answer the research question. This process can be reversed as well. Another approach is the use of a blended design. Typically, students think of blending as using a mixed methods approach to research design; however, some students do not see that one can blend designs through utilizing a phenomenological interview design with a case study approach. Another way to look at blending designs is to use a mini-ethnographic case study design. One has the benefit of an ethnographic approach that is bounded within a case study protocol that is more feasible for a student researcher with limited time and finances. Subjectivity and researcher bias are both prevalent in mini-ethnography and in case study design. The approach to mitigate is the same for each. Jackson (1990) discussed subjectivity in qualitative research and in particular cultural anthropology in her self-professed non-random sample of seventy anthropologists. The concept of “I am a fieldnote” or “I am the research instrument” focuses on the self in qualitative research (Pezalla, Pettigrew, & Miller-Day, 2012). Researchers bring their personal milieu and values, which demonstrates subjectivity and relationships between insider/outsider and researcher/participant, further noting that some see this as strength; others see it as a weakness (Draper & Swift, 2011). These relationships are present in all social research, both intentionally and unintentionally (Fields & Kafai, 2009). From a positivist perspective, the personal was seen as less relevant than “the facts out there” (Jackson, 1990, p. 111) and derives from the British teaching of keeping one’s own personal experience private. Jackson wrote that the personal reactions of Western anthropologists to native cultures should be of interest to researchers in addition to the study at hand. The data includes the researcher’s personal perspectives and biases (Lockett, Currie, Finn, Martin, & Waring, 2014; Marshall, 2014). A researcher’s cultural and experiential background will also contain biases, values, and ideologies that can affect the interpretation of a study (Bernard, 2012). It then becomes imperative that interpretation of the cultural phenomena represent that of participants and not of the researcher (Holloway, Brown, & Shipway, 2010). Hearing and understanding the perspective of others may be one of the most difficult dilemmas that face the researcher (Fields & Kafai, 2009). The better a researcher is able to recognize his/her personal view of the world and to discern the presence of personal lenses, the better one is able to hear and interpret the behavior and reflections of others (Fields & Kafai, 2009; Marshall & Rossman, 2016). Draper and Swift (2011) made two important points in their work: a) there is no universal accepted design for data collection and b) the researcher plays a central, key role in the data collection phase of the study. Fields and Kafai (2009) also made these points in their discussion of ethnographic research designs. It is imperative that interpretations represent those of the participants and not of the researcher (Fields & Kafai, 2009). What is important is that the researcher mitigates bias through the data collection methods that are appropriate for the study design through the use of triangulation. Denzin (2012) suggested data triangulation for correlating people, time, and space; investigator triangulation for correlating the findings from multiple researchers in a study; theory triangulation for using and correlating multiple theoretical strategies; and methodological triangulation for correlating data from multiple data collection methods. Methodological triangulation adds depth to the data that is collected. Denzin (2012) made the point that it is somewhat like looking through a crystal to perceive all the facets/viewpoints of the data. Moreover, he posited that triangulation should be reframed as crystal refraction (many points of light) to extrapolate the meaning inherent in the data and thereby mitigating one’s bias. The use of methodological triangulation (multiple methods of data collection) is one method (Bekhet & Zauszniewski, 2012; Lloyd, 2011). Methodological triangulation adds depth to the data that is collected. Denzin (2012) made the point that it is somewhat like looking
928 The Qualitative Report 2017 through a crystal to perceive all the facets/viewpoints of the data. Moreover, he posited that triangulation should be reframed as crystal refraction (many points of light) to extrapolate the meaning inherent in the data and thereby mitigating one’s bias. The importance of triangulation cannot be underestimated to ensure reliability and validity of the data and results (Chenail, 2011). A research study has validity when the data is accurate and truthful (Roe & Just, 2009). Validity exists when the inferences have a reasonable probability for actually occurring and can be tied back to the conceptual framework of the study (Roe & Just, 2009). Validity in qualitative research consists of external as well as construct validity (Amerson, 2011). External validity (a quantitative term) is represented in a qualitative study by the ability of a study’s conclusions to be transferred to other studies (Aastrup & Halldorsson, 2013). This should be possible regardless of populations, settings, or times (Aastrup & Halldorsson, 2013). A study has construct validity if the inferences that are made can be tied to the conceptual framework of the study (Amerson, 2011). Threats to external validity occur when the results can be attributed to other causes not explored in the study (Burchett, Mayhew, Lavis, & Dobrow 2013). Moreover, threats to construct validity are demonstrated by researcher bias and relying on a single measurement instrument (Amerson, 2011). Construct validity is proven by using multiple sources of data (triangulation), preserving the chain of evidence, and allowing key informants to review the data (Amerson, 2011). External validity is demonstrated by the ability of the study to be replicated, known as transferability in qualitative studies (Roe & Just, 2009). Methodology for the Mini-Ethnographic Case Study Design The common data collection methods often consist of fieldwork (Dennis, 2010; Jackson, 1990) with direct observation (Gordon, 2011; Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Salem, 2008), a focus group (Packer-Muti, 2010), a reflective journal (Sangasubana, 2011), and unstructured interviews (Bernard, 2012; Blow, Sprenkle, & Davis, 2007; Rubin & Rubin, 2012) for triangulation (cross-examination) purposes (Denzin, 2009). For qualitative researchers, member checking is a means by which researchers can validate meaning, not word choice, with participants by asking a clarifying question such as is this what you meant? in order to ensure that one does not leaves gaps in understanding the phenomenon (Carlson, 2010). Sometimes participants will agree with what they originally said; sometimes participants want to expand on their original response (Houghton, Casey, Shaw, & Murphy, 2013). Member checking is an important component to enhance the validity of the study results (Carlson, 2010). Hearing and understanding the perspective of others may be one of the most difficult dilemmas that face the researcher (Fields & Kafai, 2009). The use of jargon and insider wording can make it difficult, if not impossible, for researchers to ascertain what the participant means (Brett et al., 2007). Through the participant review method of validation (also known as member checking), one can ascertain the meaning of certain jargon words (Brett et al., 2007). Moreover, the researcher should share any interpretations with the study participants to ensure that the words were correctly interpreted as well as filling in gaps to enhance understanding of the intent of the jargon (Holloway et al., 2010). Direct observation. Direct observation is used by both mini-ethnographers and case study researchers. A direct observer is the research instrument and becomes the data collection instrument (Gordon, 2011; Holloway et al., 2010; Landau & Drori, 2008; Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Salem, 2008). With oneself as a lens, a researcher observes and interacts with members of a culture in order to understand the culture, and then disseminates the researcher’s interpretations to those outside the culture (Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Onwuegbuzie, Leech, & Collins, 2010). There are some limitations to direct observation (Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Salem, 2008). The researcher is the research instrument, and cannot separate oneself from the
Patricia Fusch, Gene Fusch, and Lawrence Ness 929 research. It includes the researcher’s personal perspectives and biases (Snow, Morrill, & Anderson, 2003; Wolcott, 2009). To enhance objectivity and to strive to overcome the bias limitation, researchers using direct observation should identify their position up front and be open about their perspectives (Holloway et al., 2010; Landau & Drori, 2008). A researcher can also have participants validate that the researcher has correctly interpreted the phenomenon (Holloway et al., 2010; Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Wolcott, 2009). It is important that a novice researcher recognizes their own personal role in the study and mitigates any concerns during data collection (Denzin, 2009). Another concern is that the data collected should be as in-depth and rich as possible (Denzin, 2009). For example, during direct observation of participants, this may include information regarding body language, the surroundings, and even background noise (Denzin, 2009). As Denzin (2009) pointed out, there are no common descriptions of a participants’ world; therefore, as novice researchers, it is important to record everything one can during data collection. Field notes. Field notes are assembled during the observation phase of data collection and are not limited to traditional ethnography. Field notes can be collected in a short span of time, which make them particularly useful for mini-ethnographies and case study design. Richardson and Adams St. Pierre (2008) built on Richardson’s seminal work and identified four types of notes that ethnographers use while in the field. These notes included observation notes, methodological notes, theoretical notes, and personal notes (Dennis, 2010; Jackson, 1990; Onwuegbuzie et al., 2010). Observation notes are the field notes that the researcher will make during the time in the field to capture what one observes and hears (Dennis, 2010; Jackson, 1990). A researcher uses methodological notes as memos to oneself to ensure that one records what one sees and hears to help identify themes and patterns in the data. A researcher can combine the idea of theoretical notes with the methodological notes to include conceptual thoughts, hypothesis and ideas that arise during the research (Richardson & Adams St. Pierre, 2008; Sangasubana, 2011). In contrast to observation notes, methodological notes, theoretical notes, and personal notes, Walford (2009) interviewed four ethnographers and identified four different methods for taking field notes. Walford argued from his findings that there was not a singular note taking strategy in ethnographic research. The advantages of taking copious notes can assist as the later coding of themes and ideas that reoccur during the fieldwork (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2010). Similar to the limitations of the participant observations, field notes also must take into account that the researcher is the research instrument, and cannot separate themselves from the research (Dennis, 2010; Jackson, 1990; Onwuegbuzie et al., 2010; Winters, Cudney, & Sullivan, 2010). It includes the researcher’s personal perspectives and biases (Jackson, 1990). By taking copious notes and writing down everything that the researcher sees and hears, thoughts about the study, and interpretations, the researcher is able to identify key themes and issues to enhance the validity of the research (Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Richardson & Adams St. Pierre, 2008; Sangasubana, 2011; Snow et al., 2003; Wolcott, 2009). Reflective journal. Richardson and Adams St. Pierre (2008) identified personal notes as personal feelings and statements about the research, which can also be a reflective journal. Sangasubana (2011) suggested writing personal impressions and feelings from the researcher’s experiences in the field to help identify personal bias that may impact the researcher’s interpretation of the data. Through spending the time reflecting during the days away from the site, the reflective journal assists the researcher to understand perspectives and interpretation of the culture (Ben-Ari & Enosh, 2011; Onwuegbuzie et al., 2010; Sangasubana, 2011). Moreover, the use of reflective journaling is not limited to long periods of times spent in the field collecting data. A reflective journal is not linked to specific time frames; its employment
930 The Qualitative Report 2017 is especially useful for mini-ethnographies and case study design where the researcher reflects on any data gathered in a short time. Sometimes field notes are representing by journaling (Ortlipp, 2008). Journaling is also an excellent method to identify themes and patterns in the data (Ortlipp, 2008). Journaling is also known as a reflective process; one writes down everything seen and heard and then, once away from the research site, reflects on that information to again identify themes and patterns from the observations (Ben-Ari & Enosh, 2011; Hayman, Wilkes, & Jackson, 2012; Snyder, 2012). Journaling is an integral part of qualitative research (Ben-Ari & Enosh, 2011; Hayman et al., 2012; Snyder, 2012). Direct observation notes are typically kept separate from the reflective journal because the journal is one’s reflection on all the data from the study. The journal contains thoughts, opinions, musings, discussion, and reflections on the process and the participants. It is a written representation of one’s personal lens about the study. Moreover, the reflective journal is more than just direct observation notes—it is a synthesis of all the data (Fusch, 2013). A limitation of the reflective journal is that the researcher is still the data collection instrument and cannot separate oneself from the research (Marshall & Rossman, 2016). The advantage can also be a disadvantage. A researcher should spend time in reflection to ensure that what one is interpreting is that of the culture (Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Richardson & Adams St. Pierre, 2008; Sangasubana, 2011). Informal/unstructured interviews. Interviews are used in both mini-ethnographies and case study design. The researcher determines whom to interview and what questions needed to be answered or clarified (Rubin & Rubin, 2012; Wolcott, 2009). Participants are asked questions as to how, what, or why to elicit their perspectives, thoughts, and opinions. Informal interviews provide the researcher a strategy to discuss concepts, questions, and gain clarification for observations, field notes, and the reflective journal (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2010; Ortlipp, 2008; Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Informal interviews tend to occur throughout the fieldwork and help reinforce the researcher’s role in the study (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2010; Rubin & Rubin, 2012). The potential disadvantage of informal interviews in a traditional ethnography, where the researcher spends a great deal of time in the culture, is that as the participants get to know the researcher; the researcher must take care not to project one’s ideas onto the participants so that the participants discuss their own perceptions of the phenomenon (Wolcott, 2009). The researcher cannot separate oneself from the research (Richardson & Adams St. Pierre, 2008; Sangasubana, 2011; Wolcott, 2009). For a mini-ethnography, the researcher spends less time in the field interacting with participants; therefore, there is not enough time for participants to know the researcher and the researcher has limited time to project their own bias into the study. The same can be said for case study design. Researcher bias/worldview is a concern whether from the standpoint of the researcher or the participant (Chenail, 2011). Chenail pointed out that the establishment and implementation of an interview protocol is important to mitigate bias especially if the researcher is also a member of the population pool being studied. Miscommunication between participants and researchers can especially arise from misunderstandings between the two (Chenail, 2011). This is especially apparent during an interview process where cultural differences can manifest in communication, which makes the use of an interview protocol important (Amerson, 2011). It would be impossible to remove all bias because one is a human being. Rather, one mitigates bias as best as one can (Amerson, 2011; Chenail, 2011). This is demonstrated through the use of an interview protocol, member checking, data saturation, and other strategies to mitigate the use of one personal lens during the data collection process of the study (Dibley, 2011). Driving participants to predetermined conclusions speaks to the same concepts (Dibley, 2011).
Patricia Fusch, Gene Fusch, and Lawrence Ness 931 Nonverbal communication is important to understand the full meaning of a participant’s response (Denham & Onwuegbuzie, 2013). It is too easy to misunderstand what is meant when the researcher does not know the cultural context (Abolafia, 2010). This is where sensemaking comes in—to ensure that each understands what is meant (Abolafia, 2010). Sensemaking involves establishing communication in complex environments where there are no common definitions between people (Abolafia, 2010). This is especially critical when the researcher is interviewing a participant from a sub-culture that is not familiar to most (Abolafia, 2010). Moreover, sensemaking has also been defined as a shared narrative construction (Abolafia, 2010) or collective negotiation, where two or more people find a common ground within which to communicate. Researchers should be able to ensure that there is a common understanding about concepts that are addressed by participants (Carlson, 2010) to ensure that one has captured the words that the participant has spoken; it is another matter to ensure that one has captured the meaning. Sensemaking is important for mini-ethnographies and case study design where the time is limited to come to a common understanding. Sensemaking has a somewhat accelerated process which is why often mini-ethnographic case study design researchers conduct their studies within cultures where they are already members. Unstructured interviews are problematic for mini-ethnographers because of the nature of their composition, which is why structured interviews are a preferred strategy. Unstructured interviews have limitations and concerns regarding time constraints, failure to recognize and account for non-verbal cues, failure to understand and account for metaphors, and lack of reflexivity on the part of the interviewer (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2010). This can be mitigated through the ability of the researcher to write from different perspectives and different genres in order to enhance understanding in that the thought processes one goes through when using metaphor provides the writer with multiple lenses or crystals (Richardson & Adams St. Pierre, 2008). One does not necessarily triangulate; one crystallizes thorough recognizing that there are many sides from which to approach a concept (Richardson & Adams St. Pierre, 2008). Good data collection and analysis procedures and sharing interpretations with participants throughout the study are important (Andrade, 2009; Yin, 2014); for the data to be relevant it must pass the test of participant confirmations (Holloway et al., 2010; Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Wolcott, 2009), also known as member checking. Essentially, it goes beyond Denzin’s (2009) triangulation theory and employs crystallization methodology by correlating data from many sources. Focus groups. Focus group interviews are used in both mini-ethnography as well as case study design, although they are more typical for case study research. Focus group interviews can be a useful for mini-ethnographies because one can elicit a great deal of data in a shorter time frame than individual interviews. A focus group interview is a flexible, unstructured dialogue between the members of a group and an experienced facilitator/moderator that meets in a convenient location (Brockman, Nunez, & Basu, 2010; Jayawardana & O’Donnell, 2009; Packer-Muti, 2010). The focus group interview is a way to elicit multiple perspectives on a given topic but may not be as effective for sensitive areas (Nepomuceno & Porto, 2010). In particular, participants are asked how and what types of question to elicit their thoughts, perspectives, and opinions. Moreover, an experienced focus group facilitator can be retained to conduct the focus group so that the researcher could conduct direct observation of the participants through notetaking. To promote the focus group and encourage participation, one offers an incentive of a soft drink and pizza for participation, as well as fresh fruit, cheese, and vegetables to account for the dietary restrictions of some participants. The use of incentives can be effective on response rates, particularly if the incentive is awarded at the time of the session (Larson & Sachau, 2009; Michaelidou & Dibb, 2006; Sánchez-Fernández, Muñoz-Leiva, Montoro-Ríos, & Ibáñez-Zapata, 2010). For focus groups it is recommended that the size of the group include
932 The Qualitative Report 2017 between six and 12 participants, so that the group is small enough for all members to talk and share their thoughts, and yet large enough to create a diverse group (Lasch et al., 2010; Onwuegbuzie et al., 2010). Focus groups have limitations pertaining to a propensity for groupthink in that members pressure others to conform to group consensus (Dimitroff, Schmidt, & Bond, 2005). Furthermore, a focus group session that elicits useful information can be dependent on the skills of the facilitator as well as the failure to monitor subgroups with the focus group (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2010). Limitations to a Mini-Ethnographic Case Study Design In addition to the usual concerns and limitations with ethnography as a research method, the mini ethnography has specific concerns such as being embedded, few participants, and the transferability of the study results. Certainly, many of the reasons why one would choose a traditional ethnographic design would not make for strong reasoning to choose a mini-ethnographic case study. Becoming embedded in the culture is a challenge due to time constraints (Fusch, 2013). The issue of few participants is related to concerns about the richness and thickness of the data (Abrams, 2010). Finally, transferability can be a concern because mini-ethnographies tend to be very specific about the topic; therefore, the study results may not be transferable to other research sites (Marshall & Rossman, 2016). Being embedded. One of the important tenets in ethnographic research is the ability of the researcher to become embedded in the culture that is being studied. It is the opportunity to become a member of the culture in order to collect data (Fusch, 2013). Knowing that one is embedded in the culture is illustrated in a number of ways—both explicit and implicit. Explicit is indicated by certain rites such as membership cards, for example. Implicit is more subtle in that one watches and looks for indications that are more casual but no less important than explicit. Being embedded is not necessarily linked to the amount of time spent at the research site. In one of the author’s mini-ethnographic case study research, being embedded was implicit (Fusch, 2013). At the manufacturing facility where she conducted her research, the employees parked their personal vehicles by seniority—the longer one was at the company, the closer they parked to the building and the shorter their walk to work. The shorter time one worked there, the farther out one parked in the large lot. Employees were also very protective of their chosen parking spaces—one did not park in someone else’s acknowledged space for any reason. If that person were absent from the workplace that day (or week), the spot was left open until they returned. When conducting fieldwork, the author would begin early in the morning when the shift began. She chose a parking space towards the back of the lot as designated by her “seniority” (or lack thereof). Shortly after beginning her fieldwork, in the second week of the 30 days she was on site, two new employees were hired to account for the increased workload beginning for the Christmas holiday sales rush coming up. The two new hires parked farther back on the lot than she did as indicated by their seniority status. One morning she was late getting to the research site. She assumed that when she arrived that someone would take her parking spot since she was not employed at the facility; instead, she was a researcher there for a short time. When she drove onto the lot she found that every parking space was taken—except for hers, which indicates being implicitly embedded. The lesson here to be learned is to be mindful of indications where one is indeed embedded in a short amount of time. Few participants. In qualitative studies, one does not use a statistical sample—one uses purposive sampling such as snowball sampling or census sampling (Abrams, 2010; Acharya, Prakash, Saxena, & Nigam, 2013). One is not looking for a representative sample;
Patricia Fusch, Gene Fusch, and Lawrence Ness 933 instead, the sample is one that represents the particular participants who have the knowledge, skills, and expertise to answer the research question (Abrams, 2010). The concept of few participants is one that is unique to qualitative research. Moreover, one should focus on quality (rich) as opposed to quantity (thick) data. In light of that, one would also recognize that a quick 10 minute interview does not represent rich data. Instead, one would interview one participant for a longer length of time or multiple times to ensure that one has rich and thick data. Some would say that the interview would be more representative of a phenomenological long interview with probing questions and more. Again, the focus here is on quality rather than quantity—rich over thick data. One is not looking for a representative sample; instead, the sample is one that represents the particular participants who have the knowledge, skills, and expertise to answer the research question (Abrams, 2010). One should choose the sample size that has the best opportunity for the researcher to reach data saturation (Fusch & Ness, 2015). A large sample size does not guarantee one will reach data saturation, nor does a small sample size—rather, it is what (or whom) constitutes the sample size (Burmeister & Aitken, 2012). Abrams (2010) is a good source for an overview of qualitative sampling including the underlying methodology, assumptions, characteristics, and assessment standards. Qualitative studies are unique in that all relevant participants are interviewed rather than a specified number (Ando, Cousins, & Young, 2014; Fusch & Fusch, 2015; Fusch & Ness, 2015) or through large samples sizes as in quantitative research (Burmeister & Aitken, 2012). Bernard (2012) stated that the number of interviews needed for a qualitative study to attain data saturation was a number he could not quantify, but that the researcher takes what he can get. It can be stated that data saturation is reached when there was enough information to replicate the study (Anderson, 2010; Walker, 2012), when the ability to obtain additional new information has been attained et al., 2006), and when further coding was no longer feasible (Guest, Bunce, & Johnson, 2006) as discussed by Fusch and Ness (2015). It is also important to keep in mind that methodological triangulation assists in reaching data saturation. Also, know that case study design is unique in that the population and the sample are the same—one is using census sampling—where one gathers data on everyone in the sample. The data would reach saturation the same as when interviewing many participants—no new data, no new themes, no new information, ability to replicate the study—the standards are the same regardless of the number of participants (Fusch & Ness, 2015). Transferability. Generalizability is a quantitative term/concept and transferability is a qualitative term/concept. A key distinction between generalizability and transferability is that qualitative researchers leave transferability up to the reader to decide (Porte, 2013). This is because qualitative studies are very unique and the data may not transfer to another study (Marshall & Rossman, 2016; Porte, 2013). Therefore, good data collection and analysis procedures and sharing interpretations with participants throughout the study are important (Andrade, 2009; Yin, 2014) to assist in the transferability of the study results to mitigate any concerns about generalizability. Four Examples of Mini-Ethnographic Case Studies In their study of nurse perceptions regarding a culture of quality within an ICU unit, Storesund and McMurray (2009) used a mini-ethnographic case study design. The ethnographic lens looked at the culture of the unit; the case study design part explored and identified causal links in a real-life context. Typically, ethnographic researchers do not look for causality; however, the use of the case study design enabled Storesund and McMurray to look for links between real world events in their study results. The data collection methods used by the researchers included semistructured interviews as well as field notes during the
934 The Qualitative Report 2017 observation phase. Binding the study in time and space allowed the researchers to complete their study. Thompson (2016) conducted a mini-ethnographic case study to explore the culture of digitally savvy young children through the case of one 4-year old child. The ethnographic lens explored the culture of young children who are considered to be what is termed as touch-screen natives; the case study design portion limited the study to one participant. The data collection methods employed by Thompson (2016) included direct observation, field notes, and reflective journaling. In this example, Thompson (2016) explored and discussed a macro perspective of the culture of young children as well as a micro perspective of one particular child. Case studies used in international business courses curriculum use ethnographic data collection methods to explore the culture of a specific company. Moore (2011) discussed how ethnography is often paired with case study design in international business research to allow the study of multiple perspectives of a cultural phenomenon. Her example used an ethnographic case study design for research about the BMW MINI firm. The data collection methods included interviews, participant observation, and archival research. In this particular study, Moore (2011) used the case study design to bound the research in time and space to illustrate an example of the culture of one individual company. Finally, Fusch and Fusch (2015) conducted a mini-ethnographic case study design research to ascertain the skills used by first line supervisors to resolve task, process, and relationship conflicts on the manufacturing production line. Viewing the data through the leader-member exchange theory lens, they found that supervisors tailored their response to meet the needs of the production line workers according to age, gender, task, and the existence of inner and outer circle members. The data collection methods included interviews, direct observation, fieldwork, journaling, a focus group interview, and archival research. The design approach assisted in bounding the mini-ethnographic research in time and space through a case study design. Conclusion Popper (1963) believed that as humans we are constantly experiencing new things in life; therefore, beliefs change with experience. For researchers, experience adds to the continuing discovery of the truth (facts) by means of a well-designed empirical study. Before a research project can begin, the novice researcher must know in what direction to proceed. A researcher should choose a research methodology, whether quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods approaches (De Mast & Bergman, 2006). The researcher can then posit the type of data to be collected, theorize what it may mean, what relationships (if any) may be inferred between variables/participants, posit the origin of phenomena, select suitable research methods, tools, and techniques, as well as explore further data collection as needed (Floden, 2009). The research methodology should be such that accounts for potential threats to validity through triangulation of data collection, appropriate variable labeling, and accounting for potential researcher bias (Fusch, 2013) to ensure validity of the study results (Golafshani, 2003). The novice researcher should choose a study design that enables one to best answer the research question. Secondly, one should choose the design that assists the researcher in reaching data saturation. Finally, the novice researcher must choose the design in which one can complete the study within a reasonable time frame with minimal cost. This is particularly important for student researchers. An appropriate research study design is the path to a well-written scholarly rich doctoral study (Fusch, 2013). As one can see, each has a certain perspective on the world which has an impact on study design and the findings of the research.
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Patricia Fusch, Gene Fusch, and Lawrence Ness 941 organizational performance consultant. Correspondence regarding this article can also be addressed directly to: [email protected]. Dr. Lawrence R. Ness is contributing faculty at Walden University and specializes in the areas of IT Management, Business Administration, and Doctoral Research. His research focuses on information technology management strategies towards increased effectiveness and business alignment. Dr. Ness has extensive corporate experience in the area of information technology management and has successfully chaired over 70 doctoral dissertation graduates. Dr. Ness is Founder of Dissertation101 Mentoring Services, LLC. Correspondence regarding this article can also be addressed directly to: [email protected] or at [email protected]. Copyright 2017: Patricia I. Fusch, Gene E. Fusch, Lawrence R. Ness, and Nova Southeastern University. Article Citation Fusch, P. I., Fusch, G. E., & Ness, L. R. (2017). How to conduct a mini-ethnographic case study: A guide for novice researchers. The Qualitative Report, 22(3), 923-941. Retrieved from http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol22/iss3/16
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