September 20, 2023

Discuss what intelligence is, how it is measured, theories of multiple intelligences, the neuroscience of intelligence, and some controversies and issues about its use by educators

CHAPTER 4

Individual Variations

Learning Goals

Describe learning and thinking styles

Characterize the nature of personality and temperament

Individual Variations

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Connecting with Teachers

Shiffy Landa, a first-grade teacher in St. Louis, Missouri, uses Howard Gardner’s multiple-intelligences approach in her classroom It is the best way to reach children because they have many different kinds of abilities She doesn’t stand in front of the room and lecture her students She acts as a facilitator Her students work in cooperative learning groups to develop their interpersonal intelligences She educates her students’ parents with parent education classes

Intelligence

Intelligence: Problem-solving skills and the ability to adapt to and learn from life’s everyday experiences

Binet Intelligence Tests

Mental Age (MA)

An individual’s level of mental development relative to others

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Person’s mental age divided by chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100

Normal Distribution

A symmetrical distribution

Majority of scores fall in the middle of the possible range of scores

Few scores appear in the extremes

ED: we need to insert a space between “mental” and “age” in the equation, but you can’t click inside it

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) – A person’s mental age divided by their chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100. (MA/CA 100)

Figure 4.1 – The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores

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The normal distribution is symmetrical, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range of scores and a few appearing toward the extremes of the range.

The Wechsler Scales

WPPSI-IV Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (2 years 6 months to 7 years 3 months)

WISC-V Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children(ages 6 to 16)

WAIS-IV Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scal

Group Intelligence Tests

Advantage

More convenient and economical

Disadvantages

Examiner cannot:

Establish rapport

Determine student’s level of anxiety

Student:

Might not understand instructions

Might be distracted by other students

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

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Students with different triarchic patterns look different in school.

Sternberg said few tasks are purely analytic, creative, or practical. Most tasks require some combination of these skills.

Wisdom is linked to both practical and academic intelligence.

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Into Practice, 1

Cindy always does very well on both standardized and classroom tests and gets good grades in school. However, she does not write original stories well nor would anyone say that she has much common sense.

Q: In what form of intelligence is Cindy high? Explain.

A: Analytic intelligence

Cindy has the ability to do the things most likely measured by tests—analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast.

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Into Practice, 2

Trent does not do well on standardized tests. His grades are not very high. However, Trent is very imaginative and a wonderful storyteller. Trent’s classmates beg him to read his stories to the class. Trent hopes to be a novelist one day. However, he often turns in work that does not conform to teacher expectations or directions.

Q: In what form of intelligence is Trent high? Explain.

A: Creative intelligence

Trent is imaginative and creative. He often does not conform.

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Into Practice, 3

Ken doesn’t do very well in school. However, he is very popular with his peers and has excellent leadership skills.

Q: In what form of intelligence is Ken high? Explain.

A: Practical intelligence

Ken functions very well in day-to-day life, but struggles with the demands of school.

Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind

Verbal

Mathematical

Spatial

Bodily-kinesthetic

Musical

Intrapersonal

Interpersonal

Naturalist

Gardner argues there are many specific types of intelligence, or frames of mind.

Verbal – Ability to think in words and use language to express meaning

Mathematical – Ability to carry out mathematical operations

Spatial – Ability to think three-dimensionally

Bodily-kinesthetic – Ability to manipulate objects and be physically adept

Musical – Sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone

Intrapersonal – Ability to understand oneself and effectively direct one’s life

Interpersonal – Ability to understand and effectively interact with others

Naturalist – Ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and human-made systems

Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind Theory into Practice, 1

Carrie loves to read and write stories.

Q: Which of Gardner’s eight frames of mind is she displaying when she engages in these activities? Explain.

A: Verbal skills

Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind Theory into Practice, 2

Jane is an excellent athlete, excelling at soccer, basketball, and baseball.

Q: Which of Gardner’s eight frames of mind is Jane displaying when she engages in these activities? Explain.

A: Bodily-kinesthetic skills

Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind Theory into Practice, 3

Steve loves to play the piano, trumpet, and drums and is quite good at all of them.

Q: Which of Gardner’s eight frames of mind is Steve displaying when he engages in these activities? Explain.

A: Musical skills and bodily-kinesthetic skills

Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind Theory into Practice, 4

Tanesha is a good friend. People often open up to her and tell her things they would not share with other people. She never betrays their trust.

Q: Which of Gardner’s eight frames of mind is Tanesha displaying when she engages in these activities? Explain.

A: Interpersonal skills

Emotional Intelligence

According to Salovey and Mayer (1990), emotional intelligence is the ability to:

Perceive and express emotion accurately and adaptively

Understand emotion and emotional knowledge

Use feelings to facilitate thought

Manage emotions in oneself and others

Enter the Debate

Should schools use intelligence tests for placement purposes?

YES

More convenient and economical

During a slideshow, text may be written on the slides in the yes/no boxes, and then saved for later reference.

The Neuroscience of Intelligence

Interest in the neuroscience of intelligence has increased

Questions include:

Is having a bigger brain linked to higher intelligence?

Is intelligence located in certain brain regions?

Is the speed at which the brain processes information linked to intelligence?

Between-Class Ability Grouping or Tracking

Advantages

Narrows the range of skill in a group of students

Prevents less-able students from “holding back” more talented students

Disadvantages

Stigmatizes students who are consigned to low-track classes

May have less-experienced teachers, fewer resources, and lower expectations

Segregates students by socioeconomic status and ethnicity

Nongraded (cross-age) programs – Variation of between-class ability grouping

Students are grouped by their ability in particular subjects, regardless of their age or grade level

Within-Class Ability Grouping

Involves placing students in two or three groups within a class according to their ability or achievement

Within-class grouping is more common in elementary than in secondary school.

Learning and Thinking Styles

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Intelligence refers to ability.

Learning and thinking styles are preferred ways to use one’s abilities.

None of us has a single learning and thinking style; we have a profile of many styles.

Reflective versus Impulsive Thinking Styles

Reflective students surpass impulsive

students at:

Remembering structured information

Reading comprehension

Problem solving and decision making

Goal setting

Setting high standards for performance

Impulsive/reflective styles are also referred to as conceptual tempo.

This dichotomy involves a student’s tendency to act quickly and impulsively or to take more time to respond and reflect on the accuracy of an answer.

Deep versus Surface Learning Styles

Deep Learners

Actively construct knowledge

Give meaning to material

Are self-motivated

Surface Learners

Are passive learners

Fail to tie information to a larger framework

Focus on external rewards

Deep/surface styles involve how students approach learning materials.

Personality and Temperament

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Personality versus Temperament

Personality: The distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world

Temperament: A person’s behavioral style and characteristic way of responding

Personality: The distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world

Temperament: A person’s behavioral style and characteristic way of responding

The “Big Five” Personality Factors

Openness

Imaginative or practical

Interested in variety or routine

Independent or conforming

Conscientiousness

Organized or disorganized

Careful or careless

Disciplined or impulsive

Extraversion

Sociable or retiring

Fun-loving or somber

Affectionate or reserved

Agreeableness

Softhearted or ruthless

Trusting or suspicious

Helpful or uncooperative

Neuroticism (emotional stability)

Calm or anxious

Secure or insecure

Self-satisfied or self-pitying

OCEAN – The “Big Five” Personality Factors

Openness

Conscientiousness

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Neuroticism

Person-Situation Interaction Theory

The best way to characterize an individual’s personality is not only in terms of personal traits or characteristics, but also in terms of the situation involved

Students choose to be in some situations and avoid others.

Children’s Temperament

Easy child

Positive mood

Establishes regular routines in infancy

Adapts easily to new experiences

Difficult child

Reacts negatively and cries frequently

Irregular daily routines

Slow to accept change

Slow-to-warm-up child

Low activity level

Somewhat negative

Low intensity of mood

Classification system proposed by Alexander Chess and Stella Thomas (Chess & Thomas, 1977; Thomas & Chess, 1991)

In a longitudinal study, Chess and Thomas found 40% of children could be classified as easy, 10% as difficult, and 15% as slow to warm up. Thirty-five percent did not fit any of the three patterns.

Rothbart and Bates’ Temperament Dimensions

Extraversion/surgency

Includes approach, pleasure, activity, smiling, and laughter

Negative affectivity

Includes fear, frustration, sadness, and discomfort

Effortful control (self-regulation)

Study revealed effortful control was a strong predictor of academic success skills in kindergarten children from low-income families

Mary Rothbart and John Bates – Three broad dimensions represent what researchers have found to characterize the structure of temperament.

Goodness of fit – Match between an individual’s temperament and the environmental demands of the person

Classroom Connections: Crack the Case: Workshops, 1

What are the issues in this case?

To what extent should teachers adapt their instruction to the strengths, learning styles, and personalities of their students? Why?

What will you do in your classroom to accommodate individual differences such as students’ strengths, learning styles, and personalities?

This case is on page 145 of the text.

Classroom Connections: Crack the Case—Workshops, 2

What other individual differences do you think you might have to accommodate? How will you do this?

On which theory is Ms. Jacobson basing her comments regarding Joe and Martha?

This case is on page 145 of the text.

Appendix of Image for Long Descriptions

Individual Variations Long Description

The figure illustrates five points under the topic intelligence. There is a rectangular box labeled intelligence. It is divided into five rectangular boxes. Starting from the left in an anti-clockwise direction, the boxes are labeled what is intelligence, intelligence tests, theories of multiple intelligences, the neuroscience of intelligence, and controversies and issues in intelligence.