Develop critical thinking by looking into the two sides of an issue in Non-Profit Marketing

The intention is to develop critical thinking by looking into the two sides of an issue in Non-Profit Marketing. So, you will have to search on your own for an additional source to cite, and in 200 words, no less, answer the following questions:

What is (or are) the main message(s)? Be thorough and professional.

How does he/she/they support his/her/their arguments?

Pinpoint facts, stats, references, cite, if possible

What are the opposing views?

Cite and analyze

What are your views on the matter?

Balance the two positions.

In your own words, discuss the applicability of the piece.

Requirements: 200words

SocialMarketing:AnApproachtoPlannedSocialChangePHILIPKOTLERandGERALDZALTMANCanmarketingconceptsandtechniquesbeeffectivelyappliedtothepromotionofsocialobjectivessuchasbrotherhood,safedriving,andfamilyplanning?Theapplica­bilityofmarketingconceptstosuchsocialproblemsisex­aminedinthisarticle.Theau­thorsshowhowsocialcausescanbeadvancedmoresuc­cessfullythroughapplyingprinciplesofmarketinganaly­sis,planning,andcontroltoproblemsofsocialchange.JournalofMarketing.Vol.35(July,1971),pp.3-12.IN1952,G.D.Wieberaisedthequestion”Whycan’tyousellbrotherhoodlikeyousellsoap?”1Thisstatementimpliesthatsellersofcommoditiessuchassoaparegenerallyeffective,while”sellers”ofsocialcausesaregenerallyineffective.Wiebeexaminedfoursocialcampaignstodeterminewhatconditionsorcharacter­isticsaccountedfortheirrelativesuccessorlackofsuccess.Hefoundthatthemoretheconditionsofthesocialcampaignre­sembledthoseofaproductcampaign,themoresuccessfulthesocialcampaign.However,becausemanysocialcampaignsareconductedunderquiteun-market-likecircumstances,Wiebealsonotedclearlimitationsinthepracticeofsocialmarketing.AdifferentviewisimpliedinJoeMcGinniss’sbest-sellingbookTheSellingofthePresident1968.2Itsthemeseemstobe”Youcansellapresidentialcandidatelikeyousellsoap.”OnceNixongavetheword:”We’regoingtobuildthiswholecampaignaroundtelevision…youfellowsjusttellmewhatyouwantmetodoandI’lldoit,”theadvertisingmen,publicrelationsmen,copywriters,makeupartist,photographers,andothersjoinedtogethertocreatetheimageandtheaurathatwouldmakethismanAmerica’sfavorite”brand.”Theseandothercasessuggestthattheartofsellingcigarettes,soap,orsteelmayhavesomebearingontheartofsellingsocialcauses.PeoplelikeMcGinniss-andbeforehimJohnK.Gal­braithandVancePackard-believeeverythingandanythingcanbesoldbyMadisonAvenue,whilepeoplelikeWiebefeelthisisexaggerated.TotheextentthatMadisonAvenuehasthispower,somepersonswouldbeheartenedbecauseofthemanygoodcausesinneedofaneffectivesocialmarketingtechnology,andotherswoulddespairoverthespectreofmassmanipulation.Unfortunatelytherearefewcarefuldiscussionsofthepowerandlimitationsofsocialmarketing.Itistheauthors’viewthatsocialmarketingisapromisingframeworkforplanningandImplementingsocialchange.Atthesametime,itispoorlyunder­stoodandoftenviewedsuspiciouslybymanybehavioralscientists.Theapplicationofcommercialideasandmethodstopromotesocialgoalswillbeseenbymanyasanotherexampleofbusiness’slackoftasteandself-restraint.Yettheapplicationofthelogicofmarketingtosocialgoalsisanaturaldevelopmentandonthewholeapromisingone.Theideawillnotdisappearbyignoringitorrallingagainstit.1G.D.Wiebe,”MerchandisingCommoditiesandCitizenshiponTele­vision,”PublicOpinionQuarterly,Vol.15(Winter,1951-52),pp.679­691,atp.679.2JoeMcGinniss,TheSellingofthePresident1968(NewYork:TridentPress,1969).3

4Thisarticlediscussesthemeaning,power,andlimitationsofsocialmarketingasanapproachtoplannedsocialchange.First,thiswillrequiredelineatingthegenericnatureofmarketingphe­nomenaandsomerecentconceptualdevelopmentsinthemarketingfield.Thiswillbefollowedbyadefinitionofsocialmarketingandanexaminationoftheconditionsunderwhichitmaybecarriedouteffectively.Theinstrumentsofsocialmarket­ingaredefined,followedbyasystemsviewoftheapplicationofmarketinglogictosocialobjectives.WhatisMarketing?Thefollowingstatementtestifiesthatthereisnouniversalagreementonwhatmarketingis.Ithasbeendescribedbyonepersonoranotherasabusinessactivity;asagroupofrelatedbusi­nessactivities;asatradephenomenon;asaframeofmind;asacoordinative,integrativefunctioninpolicymaking;asasenseofbusinesspurpose;asaneconomicprocess;asastructureofinstitutions;astheprocessofexchangingortransferringownershipofproducts;asaprocessofconcentration,equalization,anddispersion;asthecreationoftime,placeandpossessionutili­ties;asaprocessofdemandandsupplyadjust­ment;andmanyotherthings.sInspiteoftheconfusingjumbleofdefinitions,thecoreideaofmarketingliesintheexchangeprocess.Marketingdoesnotoccurunlesstherearetwoormoreparties,eachwithsomethingtoexchange,andbothabletocarryoutcommunicationsanddistribu­tion.Typicallythesubjectofmarketingistheex­changeofgoodsorservicesforothergoodsorser­vicesorformoney.Belshaw,inanexcellentstudyofmarketingexchangeanditsevolutionfromtra­ditionaltomodernmarkets,showstheexchangeprocessinmarketingtobeafundamentalaspectofbothprimitiveandadvancedsociallife.4Giventhatthecoreideaofmarketingliesinexchangeprocesses,anotherconceptcanbepostu­lated,thatofmarketingmanagement,whichcanbedefinedas:Marketingmanagementistheanalysis,planning,implementation,andcontrolofprogramsdesignedtobringaboutdesiredexchangeswithtargetaudiencesforthepurposeofpersonalormutualgain.Itreliesheavilyontheadaptationandcoordinationofproduct,price,promotion,andplaceforachievingeffectiveresponse.s3MarketingStaffoftheOhioStateUniversity,”AStatementofMarketingPhilosophy,”JOURNALOFMARKETING,Vol.29(January,1965),p.43.4CyrilS.Belshaw,TraditionalExchangeandModernMarkets(EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:Prentice-Hall,Inc.,1965)..5PhilipKotler,MarketingManagement:Analysis,PlanningandControl,SecondEdition(EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:Prentice-Hall,Inc.,1972).JournalofMarketing,July,1971Thusmarketingmanagementoccurswhenpeoplebecomeconsciousofanopportunitytogainfromamorecarefulplanningoftheirexchangerelations.Althoughplannedsocialchangeisnotoftenviewedfromtheclient’spointofview,itinvolvesverymuchanexchangerelationshipbetweenclientandchangeagent.”Thepracticeofmarketingmanagementasap­pliedtoproductsandserviceshasbecomeincreas­inglysophisticated.Theresponsibilityoflaunchingnewproductsonanationalbasisinvolvingthein­vestmentandriskofmillionsofdollarsandtheuncertaintiesofconsumerandcompetitorresponses,hasledtoanincreasedrelianceonformalresearchandplanningthroughouttheproductdevelopmentandintroductioncycle.Marketingmanagementexaminesthewants,attitudes,andbehaviorofpo­tentialcustomerswhichcouldaidindesigningadesiredproductandinmerchandising,promoting,anddistributingitsuccessfully.Managementgoesthroughaformalprocessofstrategydetermination,tacticalprogramming,regionalandnationalimple-6ArthurH.Niehoff,ACasebookofSocialChange(Chicago:Aldine,1966);WarrenG.Bennis,Ken­nethD.BenneandRobertChin,ThePlanningofChange(NewYork:Holt,Rinehart&Winston,1969).•ABOUTTHEAUTHORS.PhilipKotlerisA.MontgomeryWardProfessorofMarketingattheGraduateSchoolofManagement.NorthwesternUniversity.HeistheauthorofMarketingManage­ment:Analysis,PlanningandControlandMarketingDecisionMaking:AModel,BuildingApproach.ProfessorKotlerisalsoadvisoryeditoroftheHolt,RinehartandWinstonMarketingSeries,formerchairmanoftheCollegeonMarketingoftheInstituteofManagementSciences,andpresentlyadirectoroftheAmericanMarketingAssociation.GeraldZaltmanisassociateprofes­sorofbehavioralscience,DepartmentofMarketing,GraduateSchoolofMan­agementandFacultyAssociateoftheCenterfortheInterdisciplinaryStudyofScienceandTechnologyatNorth­westernUniversity.HeholdsanMBAdegreefromTheUniversityofChicagoandaPhDinsociologyfromTheJohnsHopkinsUniversity.ProfessorZaltmanisauthorofMarketing:ContributionstromtheBehavioralSciences,co-editorofCreatingSocialChange(inpress).PerspectivesonSocialChange(inpress).andacontributortonumerousbooksandjournals.Hismajorresearchinterestsandwritingconcernthediffusionofinno­vations,communication,socialchange.andthesociologyofscience.TheauthorswouldliketoexpresstheirappreciationtotheEducationalFoundationoftheAmericanAssociationofAd­vertisingAgenciesfortheirsupportwhichpermittedactivitiesleadingtomanyoftheideasexpressedinthisarticle.

SocialMarketing:AnApproachtoPlannedSocialChange5mentation,performancemeasurement,andfeedbackcontrol.Therehasbeenashiftfromasalestoamarket­ingorientationinrecentyears.Asalesorientationconsidersthejobasoneoffindingcustomersforexistingproductsandconvincingthemtobuytheseproducts.ThissalesconceptisimplicitinTheSell­ingofthePresident1968,sinceoneisactuallynotdevelopinganew”product”forthejob,butrathertryingtosellagivenonewithasuggestionthatitissomewhat”newandimproved.”Themarketingconcept,ontheotherhand,callsformostoftheefforttobespentondiscoveringthewantsofatar­getaudienceandthencreatingthegoodsandser­vicestosatisfythem.Thisviewseemsprivatelyandsociallymoreacceptable.Inprivateterms,thesellerrecognizesthatitiseasiertocreateproductsandservicesforexistingwantsthantotrytoalterwantsandattitudestowardexistingproducts.Insocialterms,itisheldthatthismarketingphiloso­phyrestoresconsumersovereigntyinthedetermi­nationofthesociety’sproductmixandtheuseofnationalresources.Inpractice,sinceatanytimetherearebothprod­uctsinexistenceandnewproductsbeingborn,mostmarketingeffortsareamixtureofsellingandmar­keting;thatis,achangestrategyandaresponsestrategy.Inbothcases,marketingmanagementisbecomingasophisticatedactiontechnologythatdrawsheavilyonthebehavioralsciencesforcluestosolvingproblemsofcommunicationandpersua­sionrelatedtoinfluencingtheacceptabilityofcom­mercialproductsandservices.Inthehandsofitsbestpractitioners,marketingmanagementisappliedbehavioralscience.SocialMarketingAnincreasingnumberofnonbusinessinstitu­tionshavebeguntoexaminemarketinglogicasameanstofurtheringtheirinstitutionalgoalsandproducts.Marketingmenhaveadvisedchurchesonhowtoincreasemembership,charitiesonhowtoraisemoney,andartmuseumsandsymphoniesonhowtoattractmorepatrons.Inthesocialsphere,theAdvertisingCouncilofAmericahasconductedcampaignsforsocialobjectives,including”SmokeytheBear,””KeepAmericaBeautiful,””JointhePeaceCorps,””BuyBonds,”and”GotoCollege.”Infact,socialadvertisinghasbecomeanestablishedphenomenonontheAmericanscene.Sandagesays:True,(advertising’s)communicationfunctionhasbeenconfinedlargelytoinformingandpersuadingpeopleinrespecttoproductsandservices.Ontheotherhand,itcanbemadeequallyavailabletothosewhowishtoinformandpersuadepeopleinrespecttoacitybondissue,cleaningupcom­munitycrime,the”logic”ofatheism,theneedsforbettereducationalfacilities,theabusivetac­ticsofgivenlawandenforcementofficers,oranyothersentimentheldbyanyindividualwhowishestopresentsuchsentimenttothepublic.”SocialadvertisinghasbecomesuchafeatureofAmericansocietythatitisnolongeraquestionofwhethertouseit,buthowtouseit.Ithasbeenverysuccessfulinsomecasesandconspicuouslyun­successfulinothers.Atfaulttoalargeextentisthetendencyofsocialcampaignerstoassignad­vertisingtheprimary,ifnottheexclusive,roleinaccomplishingtheirsocialobjectives.Thisignoresthemarketingtruismthatagivenmarketingob­jectiverequiresthecoordinationofthepromotionalmixwiththegoodsandservicesmixandwiththedistributionmix.Socialmarketingisamuchlargerideathansocialadvertisingandevensocialcom­munication.Toemphasizethis,theauthorsdefinesocialmarketinginthefollowingway:Socialmarketingisthedesign,implementation,andcontrolofprogramscalculatedtoinfluencetheacceptabilityofsocialideasandinvolvingconsiderationsofproductplanning,pricing,com­munication,distribution,andmarketingresearch.Thus,itistheexplicituseofmarketingskillstohelptranslatepresentsocialactioneffortsintomoreeffectivelydesignedandcommunicatedpro­gramsthatelicitdesiredaudienceresponse.Inotherwords,marketingtechniquesarethebridgingmechanismsbetweenthesimplepossessionofknowl­edgeandthesociallyusefulimplementationofwhatknowledgeallows.TheRequisiteConditionsforEffectiveSocialMarketingSomecluesconcerningthedifferencebetweensocialadvertisingandsocialmarketingarecontain­edinearlypapersbyLazarsfeldandMertonandbyWiebewhichattempttoexplainthelimitationsofsocialadvertising.”LazarsjeidandMerton’sAnalysisLazarsfeldandMertontookexceptionwiththeviewofmanypeoplethatmassmediacaneasilybeusedtocontrolpeople’sminds:”Itisourtentativejudgmentthatthesocialroleplayedbytheveryexistenceofthemassmediahasbeencommonlyoverestimated.”?Theybelievedthattheeffective­nessofmassmediaforpropagandapurposesde­pendedonthreeconditions,oneormoreofwhichislackinginmostpropagandasituations.Thefirst7C.H.Sandage,”UsingAdvertisingtoImplementtheConceptofFreedomofSpeech,”inTheRoleofAd­vertising,C.H.SandageandV.Fryburger,eds.(Homewood,Ill.:RichardD.Irwin,Inc.,1960),pp.222-223.8PaulF.LazarsfeldandRobertK.Merton,”MassCommunication,PopularTaste,andOrganizedSocialAction,”inMassCommunications,WilliamSchramm,ed.(Urbana,Ill.:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1949),pp.459-480,andsamereferenceasfootnote1.9LazarsfeldandMerton,samereferenceasfootnote8,p.462.

6conditionisrealorpsychologicalmonopolizationbythemedia;thatis,aconditionmarkedbytheabsenceofcounterpropaganda.Thischaracterizesthetotalitarianstateandaccountsforthegreatereffectivenessoftheseregimesinmoldingpublicopinionthroughmassmedia.Itisfoundoccasion­allyinfreesocietiesunderspecialcircumstances,suchasawartimeeffort.Forexample,KateSmith’seffectivenessinsellingwarbondsovertheradioduringWorldWarIIwaspartiallyduetothemara­thonnatureoftheeventandthefactthatevery­onebelievedinthecause;i.e.,therewasnocounter­propaganda.However,mostcampaignsinafreesocietyinpeacetimecompetewithsomanyothercausesandeverydaydistractionsthatthemonopolyconditionislacking,andthisconditionreducestheeffectivenessofsuchcampaigns.LazarsfeldandMertonsaidthesecondconditionrequiredforeffectivemasspropagandaiscanaliza­tion,thepresenceofanexistingattitudinalbaseforthefeelingsthatthesocialcommunicatorsarestrivingtoshape.Theyassertedthattypicalcom­mercialadvertisingiseffectivebecausethetaskisnotoneofinstillingbasicnewattitudesorcreatingsignificantlynewbehaviorpatterns,butratherca­nalizingexistingattitudesandbehaviorinonedi­rectionoranother.Thus,theselleroftoothpastedoesnothavetosocializepersonsintonewdentalcarehabits,butratherintowhichbrandofafa­miliaranddesiredproducttopurchase.Ifthepre­existingattitudesarepresent,thenpromotionalcampaignsaremoreeffective,sincecanalizationisalwaysaneasiertaskthansocialreconditioning.Theauthorsacceptthisideabutwouldaddthatmanybusinessmarketingsituationsalsoinvolvethetaskofreshapingbasicattitudesratherthanca­nalizingexistingones.Forexample,considerbusi­nesseffortstoinfluencefarmerstochangetime­honoredfarmingpractices,doctorstotryoutnewdrugs,andmalestodresswithmorefashionandflair.Canalizationisalwayseasier,buttheauthorswouldliketoemphasizethatbusinessmarketers,likesocialmarketers,oftentrytodiffusefunda­mentallynewproductsandserviceswhichrequiremajorattitudinalreorientations.LazarsfeldandMertoncallthethirdconditionsupplementationbywhichtheymeantheefforttofollowupmasscommunicationcampaignswithpro­gramsofface-to-facecontacts.IntryingtoexplainthesuccessoftherightistFatherCoughlinmove­mentinthethirties,LazarsfeldandMertonobserve:Thiscombinationofacentralsupplyofpropa­ganda(Coughlin’saddressesonanationwidenet­work),thecoordinateddistributionofnewspapersandpamphletsandlocallyorganizedface-to-facediscussionsamongrelativelysmallgroups-thiscomplexofreciprocalreinforcementbymassmediaandpersonalrelationsprovedspectacularlysuccessful.”?10LazarsfeldandMerton,samereferenceasfootnote8.JournalofMarketing,July,1971Thisapproachisstandardinmanyclosedsocietiesandorganizationsandsuggestsanotherkeydiffer­encebetweensocialadvertisingandsocialmarket­ing.Whereasasocialadvertisingapproachcon­trivesonlytheeventofmassmediacommunicationandleavestheresponsetonaturalsocialprocesses,socialmarketingarrangesforastepdowncommu­nicationprocess.Themessageispassedonanddis­cussedinmorefamiliarsurroundingstoincreaseitsmemorability,penetration,andactionconse­quences.Thussupplementation,monopolization,andcanalizationarecriticalfactorsinfluencingtheef­fectivenessofanysocialmarketingeffort.Wiebe’sAnalysisAnadditionalcontributionwasmadebyWiebeinhisattempttounderstandthedifferentialeffec­tivenessoffoursocialcampaigns.HHeexplainedtherelativeeffectivenessofthesecampaignsintermsoftheaudiencemember’sexperiencewithregardtofivefactors:1.TheForce.Theintensityoftheperson’smo­tivationtowardthegoalasacombinationofhispredispositionpriortothemessageandthestimulationofthemessage.2.TheDirection.Knowledgeofhoworwherethepersonmightgotoconsummatehismo­tivation.3.TheMechanism.Theexistenceofanagencythatenablesthepersontotranslatehismoti­vationintoaction.4.AdequacyandCompatibility.Theabilityandeffectivenessoftheagencyinperformingitstask.5.Distance.Theaudiencemember’sestimateoftheenergyandcostrequiredtoconsummatethemotivationinrelationtothereward.Toshowhowthesefactorsoperate,WiebefirstanalyzedtheKateSmithcompaigntosellbondsduringWorldWarII.Thiscampaignwasemi­nentlysuccessful,accordingtoWiebe,becauseofthepresenceofforce(patriotism),direction(buybonds),mechanism(banks,postoffices,telephoneorders),adequacyandcompatibility(somanycen­terstopurchasethebonds),anddistance(easeofpurchase).Infact,extratelephonelineswerein­stalledonthenightofthecampaignat134CBSstationstotakeordersduringherappeal.Theefforttobuybonds…wasliterallyreducedtothedistancebetweenthelistenerandhistelephone.Psychologicaldis­tancewasalsominimized.Thelistenerremainedinhisownhome.Therewerenonewpeopletomeet,nounfamiliarprocedures,noformstofillout,noexplanation,nowaiting…,12InthecaseofacampaigntorecruitCivilDe­fensevolunteers,manyofthesamefactorswerepresentexceptthatthesocialmechanismwasnot11Samereferenceasfootnote1.12Samereferenceasfootnote1,p.633.

SOCUlIMarketing:AnApproachtoPlannedSocialChange7preparedtohandlethelargevolumeofresponse,andthisreducedthecampaign’ssuccess.Teachers,manuals,equipment,andregistrationandadminis­trationprocedureswereinadequate,andmanyre­spondingcitizenswereturnedawayanddisap­pointedaftertheywereledtobelievethattheirserviceswereurgentlyneeded.Thethirdcampaign,adocumentaryonjuveniledelinquency,didnotmeetwithmaximumsuccessbecauseoftheabsenceofamechanism.Insteadofbeingdirectedtoanexistingagency,peoplewereurgedtoformneighborhoodcouncilsthemselves.Thiscertainlytakesfarmoreeffortthansimplypickingupthephonetobuyawarbond,or”stop­pingin”toregisteratthenearestCivilDefenseunit.ThefourthcampaignrevolvedaroundthegoaloftheKefauvercommitteehearingstoarousecitizensto”settheirhouseinorder.”Thiscampaignmetwithanotablelackofsuccess,however,becausecitizenswerenotdirectedtoanappropriatemech­anismdespitethefactthatoneexistedinprin­cipleinthepoliticalpartyorganizations.Politicalpartyorganizationsapparentlyleftmuchtobede­siredintermsofavailabilityandcompatibility.Theskepticismprevalentatthetimeconcerningthechancesofanythingbeneficialhappeningasaresultofthehearingswasampleevidencethatconsiderablepsychologicaldistanceexistedbetweentheaudienceandthemechanismsforaction.TheSocialMarketingApproachTheLazarsfeldandMertonconditionsandtheWiebefactorsprovideausefulbackgroundforview­ingtheconceptualframeworkusedbymarketingstrategists.Marketersviewthemarketingproblemasoneofdevelopingtherightproductbackedbytherightpromotionandputintherightplaceattherightprice.ThesekeyvariablesinthemarketingmixhavebeennamedthefourP’sbyMcCarthy.13Theauthorsshallexamineeachofthesevariables,designatedcontrolvariables,intermsofsomewell­knownsocialissues.Product.Inbusinessmarketing,sellersstudytheneedsandwantsoftargetbuyersandattempttodesignproductsandservicesthatmeettheirde­sires.Ifwell-designedandaffordable,theseproductswillbepurchased.Insocialmarketing,sellersalsohavetostudythetargetaudiencesanddesignap­propriateproducts.Theymust”package”thesocialideainamannerwhichtheirtargetaudiencesfinddesirableandarewillingtopurchase.Thiscor­respondstoWiebe’sideaofamechanism.Productdesignistypicallymorechallenginginthesocialareathanitisinthebusinessarea.Con­sidertheproblemofmarketing”saferdriving.”Thesocialobjectiveistocreatesaferdrivinghabitsand13E.JeromeMcCarthy,BasicMarketing:AManagerialApproach,ThirdEdition(Homewood,Ill.:RichardD.Irwin,Inc.,1968),pp.31-33.attitudesinthepopulation.Thereisnooneproductthatcanaccomplishthis.Variousproductshavetobedesignedthatwillmakepartialcontributionstothesocialobjective.Apubliceducationmediacampaignprovidingtipsonsafedrivingisonesuchproduct;theofferingof”defensivedrivingcourses”isanother;thecreationofinsurancepoli­cieswhichreducepremiumsforsaferdriversisstillanotherproduct.Ingeneral,thesocialmar­keterremainsawareofthecoreproduct(saferdriving)andtriestocreatevarioustangibleprod­uctsandserviceswhichare”buyable”andwhichadvancethesocialobjective.Identicalreasoningisrequiredbythosewhomarketaltruisticcauses(e.g.,charitygiving,blooddonation),personalhealthcauses(e.g.,nonsmoking,betternutrition),andsocialbettermentcauses(e.g.,civilrights,improvedhousing,betterenvironment).Ineachcase,thesocialmarketermustdefinethechangesought,whichmaybeachangeinvalues,beliefs,affects,behavior,orsomemixture.Hemustmeaningfullysegmentthetargetmarkets.Hemustdesignsocialproductsforeachmarketwhichare”buyable,”andwhichinstrumentallyservetheso­cialcause.Insomesocialcauses,themostdifficultproblemwillbetoinnovateappropriateproducts;inothercasesitwillbetomotivatepurchase.Promotion.Themarketingman’ssecondcontrolvariableispromotion.Itisthecommunication­persuasionstrategyandtacticsthatwillmaketheproductfamiliar,acceptable,andevendesirabletotheaudience.Wiebe’scounterparttopromotionis”force.”Thesocialcampaignstrategistwilltendtothinkofthisasmassmediacommunication,butpromotionisactuallyamuchlargeridea.Tothemarketingman,promotionincludesthefollowingmajoractivities:Advertising:Anypaidformofnonpersonalpres­entationandpromotionofproducts,services,orideasbyanidentifiedsponsor.PersonalSelling:Anypaidformofpersonalpresentationandpromotionofproducts,service,orideasbyanidentifiedsponsor.Publicity:Anyunpaidformofnonpersonalpres­entationandpromotionofproducts,services,orideaswherethesponsorisunidentified.SalesPromotion:Miscellaneouspaidforms(spe­cialprograms,incentives,materials,andevents)designedtostimulateaudienceinterestandac­ceptanceofaproduct.Eachofthesepromotionaltoolsinvolvescomplexissuesinstrategyandtactics.Withrespecttoad­vertising,themarketerhastodeterminethesizeofthetotaladvertisingbudget,thechoiceofap­peals,thedevelopmentofattention-gettingcopy,theselectionofeffectiveandefficientmedia,theschedulingoftheadvertisinginputs,andthemeas­urementofoverallandsegment-levelresults.Withrespecttopersonalselling,themarketermustde­terminethesizeofthetotalsalesforce,thede-

8velopmentofsalesterritoryboundariesandassign­ments,thedevelopmentofpersonalpresentationstrategies,thedegreeandtypeofsalesforcemoti­vationandsupervision,andtheevaluationofsales­forceeffectiveness.Publicitynecessitatesarrangingforsignificantnewsabouttheproducttoappearinvariousmedia.Salespromotioncallsfordevelopingspecialdisplay,premiums,programs,andeventsthatmightbeusefulinstimulatinginterestoraction.Eachoftheseactivitiesisaspecialtyinwhichtheexpertshaveachievedsophisticatedlevelsofknowledgeandtechniques.Thisisespeciallyap­parentwhenoneexaminessocialcampaignsde­velopedbyamateurswheretheappealsandcopyseemverynaive.Evenbehavioralscienceconsult­antstosocialcampaignorganizationsoftenfailtomakeamaximumcontributionbecauseoftheirin­abilityorreluctancetoviewtheissueinbroadmarketingtermsinsteadofinstrictlysocialorethicalterms.RecentlyNathanielMartincriticizedtheIndiangovernmentforfailingtohandlefamilyplanningasamarketingproblem.Sellingbirthcontrolisasmuchamarketingjobassellinganyotherconsumerproduct.Andwherenomanufacturerwouldcontemplatedevelopingandintroducinganewproductwithoutathoroughunderstandingofthevariablesofthemarket,plannersinthehighestcirclesofIndiangovern­menthaveblithelygoneaheadwithoutunder­standingthatmarketingprinciplesmustdeter­minethecharacterofanycampaignofvoluntarycontrol.TheIndianshavedoneonlythepoorestresearch.Theyhavemismanageddistributionofcontraceptivedevices.Theyhaveignoredtheim­portanceof”customerservice.”Theyhavepro­ceededwithgrosslyinadequateundertrainedstaffs;theyhavebeenblindtotheimportanceofpromotionandadvertlsing.wThisisnottodenythattheIndiangovernmenthasundertakensomeinnovativepromotionalap­proaches.Referralfeesarepaidtosalesmen,bar­bers,andotherswhobringinconsentingmalesforsterilization.Theconsentingmaleisgivenatran­sistorradioorasmallpaymenttocoverhiscostsofbeingabsentfromwork.Womenhavebeenofferedgiftsforconsentingtouseintrauterinecontracep­tivedevices.ButMartinfeelsthatthetotalpro­gramlacksthequalitiesofanorganized,well­planned,andcontinuousmarketingeffort.l514NathanielA.Martin,”TheOutlandishIdea:HowaMarketingManWouldSaveIndia,”Marketing/Com­munications,Vol.297(March,1968),pp.54-60.15Fortwoanalysesofthemarketingissuesandoppor­tunitiesinthefamilyplanningissue,seeJulianL.Simon,”AHugeMarketingResearchTask-BirthControl,”JournalofMarketingResearch,Vol.5(February,1968),pp.21-27;andGlenL.Urban,”IdeasonaDecision-InformationSystemforFamilyPlanning,”IndustrialManagementReview,Vol.10(Spring,1969),pp.45-61.JournalofMarketing,July,1971AnexampleofcarefulpromotionalplanningforasocialobjectiveisfoundintheAmericanCancerSocietyeffortstoraisemoneyforcancerresearch.Intheirbrochuredirectedtolocalunits,theyat­tempttoeducatethevolunteerandprofessionalchaptersonthehandlingofnewspapers,pictures,companypublications,radioandtelevision,movies,specialevents,andcontroversialarguments.Forexample,intermsofspecialevents:DramaticspecialeventsattractattentiontotheAmericanCancerSociety.Theybringcolor,ex­citement,andglamourtotheprogram.Wellplanned,theywillgetexcellentcoverageinnews­papers,onradioandTV,andinnewsreels….ALights-on-Drive,aone-afternoonorone-nightHouse-to-Houseprogramhavesuchdramaticap­pealthattheystirexcitementandenthusiasm…keepinmindthevalueofburstsofsoundsuchasfiresirenssounding,loud-speakertrucks,fifeanddrumcorps….Amostusefulspecialeventistheringingofchurchbellstoaddasolemn,dedicatednotetothelaunchingofadriveoreducationproject.ThisshouldbeorganizedonaDivisionorcommunitybasis,andthechurchbellringingmaybethesignaltobeginaHouse­to-Housecanvass.Rehearsalsofbellringing,communityleaderstuggingatropes,offergoodpicturepossibilities.t”Somereadersmightbecriticalofthisapproachtoaworthwhilesocialobjective,buttwothingsshouldbementioned.Thefirstisthatthisshouldnotbeidentifiedasthemarketingapproachtosocialobjectives.Manypersonsmistakenlyassumethatmarketingmeanshardselling.Thisisonlyapar­ticularstyleofmarketing,andithasitscriticsbothinsideandoutsidetheprofession.Therearemanyfirmsthatmarkettheirproductswithtasteandsensitivity;examplesincludeXerox,ContainerCorporation,andHallmark.Itisimportanttorecognizethatthisisnotnonmarketingbutratherastyleofmarketingthatwaschoseninthebeliefofitsgreatereffectivenessinaccomplishingthegoalsoftheorganization.Second,theissueisnotwhetheraparticularap­proachsuitsone’spersonaltaste,butwhetheritworks.Ifa”hard”marketingstyleraisessub­stantiallymoremoneyforcancerresearchthana”soft”marketingstyle,itmustberespectedbythosewhothinkcancerresearchismoreimportantthanpersonalaesthetics.Place.Thethirdelementofthemarketingap­proachtosocialcampaignscallsforprovidingade­quateandcompatibledistributionandresponsechannels.Motivatedpersonsshouldknowwheretheproductcanbeobtained.PlaceisequivalenttotwoofWiebe’sfiveconditionsforaneffectivemasscommunicationcampaign(direction,andadequacyandcompatibility).Thepoorresultsofmanysocial16PublicInformationGuide(NewYork:AmericanCan­cerSociety,Inc.,1965),p.19.

SocialMarketing:AnApproachtoPlannedSocialChange9campaignscanbeattributedinparttotheirfailuretosuggestclearactionoutletsforthosemotivatedtoacquiretheproduct.Thecurrentcampaigntointerestpeopleinthepollutionproblemmaysufferfromthisdefect.Itissucceedinginmakingevery­onenotonlyawareofenvironmentalpollutionbutalsofearfulofit.Peoplewanttodosomethingaboutit.Butforthemostparttheycannotactbecausethereisnotaclearproductto”buy”(suchasapetitiontosign,anelectioninwhichtochooseanantipollutioncandidate,orapendingpieceofna­tionallegislation).Nordoestheaveragepersonhaveaclearpictureofthealternativechannelsofactionforexpressinghisinterestintheissue.Therearesomanyadhocorganizationsworkingwithoutcoordinationandattimeswithcross-purpose,thattheaveragepersonislikelyto”tuneout”fromfurthermessagesbecauseofpersonalfrustration.Saturationcampaignsunaccompaniedbythepro­visionofadequateresponsechannelsmayresultin”interestoverkill.”Theimportanceofplacehasbeenrecognizedinseveralcampaigns.ThemostnotableexampleistheKateSmithbond-sellingcampaignanditsimag­inativeestablishmentoftelephoneorderchannelsduringthebroadcast.Strategistsofanticigarettecampaignshaverecognizedtheneedforactionchan­nelsbysettingupsmoker’sclinicsinmanylargecities.Theycouldevengofurtherandprovidetele­phoneadviceandevensocialcallsiftheeconomicswouldjustifytheseadditionalchannels.Anadver­tisingagencyisplanningacampaigncalled”PickYourIssue”inwhichseveraldifferentsocialissueswouldbeindividuallyfeatured.Thepointwouldbemadethatbecausethebusycitizendoesnothavetimetobecomeinvolvedinallissues,thisshouldnotbeanexcusetoremainuninvolvedinanyissues.Thegoodcitizenshould”pickanissue.”Eachissueadvertisementwillcontaininformationontheorganizationsactiveinthatareaandinformthecitizenaboutwheretowriteforfurtherin­formation.Thus,placemeansarrangingforaccessibleout­letswhichpermitthetranslationofmotivationsintoactions.Planninginthisareaentailsselectingordevelopingappropriateoutlets,decidingontheirnumber,averagesize,andlocations,andgivingthempropermotivationtoperformtheirpartofthejob.Price.Thefinalcontrolvariablethatmustbeplannedisprice.Pricerepresentsthecoststhatthebuyermustacceptinordertoobtaintheproduct.ItresemblesWiebe’sconceptofdistanceandincorporatessomeaspectsofadequacyandcom­patibility.Priceincludesmoneycosts,opportunitycosts,energycosts,andpsychiccosts.Thus,thecosttopersonsaskedtoappearforimmunizationshotsincludesanypossiblemoneycharge,anyop­portunitiesforegone,theexpenditureofenergy,andthepsychologicalconcernsarousedbyinoculation.Thecostofgrvmgupsmokingislargelypsycho­logical,sincethereisactuallyafinancialsavinginbreakingthehabit.Thecostofusingseatbeltsisthechargeforbuyingthem,theefforttolockandunlockthem,andthepsychologicalcostofnotbeingcompletelysureoneisbetteroffinanaccidentwearingthemornotwearingthem.Thefunctioningofthisconceptcanalsobeillus­tratedintermsofaninterestingphenomenoninhealthcareserviceswheremanypoorpatientsprefertopatronizeunlicensedpractitionersandpayafeeinsteadofgoingtothefreehospital.InCaracas,Venezuela,forexample,althoughthereisafreehospitalfortheindigent,manyofthempatronizeprivateclinicswhichcostthem20bolivaresforconsultation.Why?Becausewhilethereisnochargeatthefreehospital,thereisasubstantialcosttothepatientintermsofenergyandpsycho­logicalabuse.Whenapatientarrivesatthehos­pital,hehastowaittoseeasocialworkerfirst.Whenheisfinallyinterviewed,thesocialworkerasksmanyquestionsabouthisincometodeterminewhetherheisreallyindigent.Thenheseesanumberofotherhospitalstaffmembersforvarioustests,andagainisaskedabouthisincome.Finally,heseesthedoctorwhomightdiscoverthathereallyneedstoseeaspecialistwhowillnotbeavailableforseveralweeks.Throughouttheexperience,thepersonismadetofeelinferiorandanuisance.Therefore,itisnotsurprisingthathewishestoavoidtheseenergyandpsychologicalcostsevenifitmeanspayingfortheservices.Butevenmonetarychargesmayplayausefulroleinleadingthepoorbacktofreehospitalser­vices.Inprivatecorrespondence,asocialpsycholo­gistsuggested:Itisasurprisingdiscoverythatevenfreemedicalcarepresentsamarketingproblem.Maybeweshouldapplydissonancetheoryandintroducesuchmedicalcareatahighpricetomakeitlookmoredesirable.Thenletusapplyacents-offspecial.introductoryoffertomaketheserviceattractive.Themarketingman’sapproachtopricingthesocialproductisbasedontheassumptionthatmembersofatargetaudienceperformacost-benefitanalysiswhenconsideringtheinvestmentofmoney,time,orenergyintheissue.Theysomehowprocessthemajorbenefitsandcomparethemtothemajorcosts,andthestrengthoftheirmotivationtoactisdirectlyrelatedtothemagnitudeoftheexcessbenefit.Thistypeofconceptualizationofbehaviorisfoundnotonlyintheeconomist’smodelofeco­nomicman,butalsoinbehavioristictheorywithitsemphasisonrewardsandcosts,inGestalttheorywithitsemphasisonpositiveandnegativevalences,andinmanagementtheorywithitsemphasisonincentivesandconstraints.Themarketer’sapproachtosellingasocialproductistoconsiderhowtherewardsforbuyingtheproductcanbeincreasedrelativetothecosts,orthecostsreducedrelative

10JournalofMarketing,Jul’)’,1971PLANNINGVARIABLESMARKETSMiscellaneoustargetmarketsSecondarytargetmarketPrimarytargetmarketCHANNELSPaidagentsMassandspecial­izedmediaProductPlacePromotionPrice1.Moneycosts2.Opportunitycosts3.Energycosts4.Psychiccosts1.ChanneltypesVoluntarygroupsTertiary2.NumberI—I-t-jll’landorganizationsI-+-H’1target3.Sizemarket4.Locations5.Compatibility1.Advertising2.Personalselling3.Publicity4.Salespromotion1.Coreproduct2.TangibleproductsResearchPlanningUnitUnitCHANGEAGENCYENVIRONMENT1.Economic2.Political3.TechnologicalI–~4.Cultural5.CompetitiveFIGURE1.Socialmarketingplanningsystem.totherewards,ortryingtofindamixofproduct,promotion,place,andpricethatwillsimultaneouslyincreasetherewardsandreducethecosts.Themainpointisthatsocialmarketingrequiresthatcarefulthoughtbegiventothemannerinwhichmanage­able,desirable,gratifying,andconvenientsolutionstoaperceivedneedorproblemarepresentedtoitspotentialbuyers.TheSocialMarketingPlanningProcessThe”fourP’s”ofmarketingmanagementareintegratedinanadministrativeprocessframeworkinFigure1.Continuousinformationiscollectedfromtheenvironmentbythechangeagency.Plansandmessagesarecreatedandsentthroughchannelstoaudiences,andtheresultsaremonitoredbythechangeagency.Thechangeagencyoperatesaresearchunitandaplanningunit.Theresearchunitcollectsseveraltypesofinformation.Itmonitorstheenvironment–economic,political,technological,cultural,andcompetitiveinfluences-forimportantdevelopmentsaffectingitssocialpoliciesandobjectives.Forex­ample,afamilyplanningagencywouldmonitoreco­nomic-demographicdevelopments(incomeandpopu­lationtrends),politicaldevelopments(liberalizationofbirthcontrolinformation),technologicaldevelop-ments(newbirthcontroltechniquesanddevices),culturaldevelopments(attitudinalchangestowardbirthcontrol),andcompetitivedevelopments(ac­tionsofsimilarandcompetinggroups).There­searchunitalsocollectsinformationonthepasteffectivenessofvariousprogramsaswellasinfor­mationonaudienceattitudes,desires,andbehavior.Thechangeagent’splanningunitformulatesshort-andlong-rangesocialmarketingplansonthebasisofthisinformation.Forexample,thefamilyplanningorganizationcarefullyconsiderstheroleofdifferentproducts,promotions,places,andprices.Itwouldidentifythemajorchannelsofcommunicationanddistribution,suchasmassorspecializedmedia,paidagents,andvolunteergroups.Itwoulddifferentiatetheprogramsintendedforitsprimarytargetmarket(largeandlow-incomefamilies),secondarytargetmarket(otherchild­bearingfamilies),tertiarytargetmarket(sourcesoffundsandadditionalvolunteerefforts),andmis­cellaneoustargetmarkets(politiciansandchurchgroups).Finally,itwouldcontinuouslygatheref­fectivenessmeasuresontheseprogramsforre­cyclingitsplanning.Thisapproachrepresentsanapplicationofbusi­nessmarketingprinciplestotheproblemofmarket­ingsocialchange.Itisalreadymanifestinsomeofthelargersocialchangeagencies.Forexample,

SocialMarketing:AnApproachtoPlannedSocialChange11i.Massmediaadvertisingcampaignsz,specraipresentationstoexecutivesBUSiNESSFIRMSi.GroupdiscountsSERVICEORGANIZATrONS2.Fundraisingi.MonthlyDDCbulletini.LocaladvertisingNATIONAL2.FilmLOCAL2.DirectmailSAFETY3.ConsumerleafletsSAFETY3.DashboardstickersDRIVERSCOUNCIL4.TrainingplansforplantsCOUNCILS4.Bring-a-frienddlsoount5.Tie-insalesLDirectrecruit-SCHOOLSrnent2.FlyerswhichchildrenbringhometotheirparentsPOLICEANDCOURTSLMassmediaadvertisingcampaigns2.selectivemediaadvertisingcampaigns3.Salespromotion4.PublicityFIGURE2.Marketingchannelsandtools:Defensivedrivingcourse.considertheworkoftheNationalSafetyCouncil.Itsstaffincludesanadvertisingmanager,asalespromotionmanagement,anAdvertisingCouncilofAmericacoordinator,aresearchdirector,andaprogramdirector.Oneofitsproductsisadefensivedrivingcourse.Figure2showsthevariouschan­nelsthroughwhichthiscourseismarketedalongwiththepromotionaltoolsituses.TheNationalSafetyCouncilreachespotentialprospectsthroughbusinessfirms,serviceorganizations,schools,andthepoliceandcourtsystem.Forthe1970s,theNationalSafetyCouncilhasadopted…afourpointmarketingprogram….Oneofthefirstobjectivesistoincreasethesaleseffectivenessofourexisting150stateandlocalsafetycouncilcooperatingagencies….Thesecondpartoftheprogramistocreate500newtrainingagenciesincommunitiesnotnowservedbysafetycouncils….AthirdpartofthemarketingprogramwillbeaimedatsellingbigindustryonadoptingDDCasatrainingcourseforallemployeesorselectedcategoriesofem­ployeesinplant-runtrainingprograms….Thefourthpartofthemarketingplandealswithanationwidepromotionaleffortbuiltaroundase­riesofcommunityspecial-emphasiscampaignsrunningfromFebruary1throughMemorialDayeachyearofthedecade.l”Thisexampleillustratesthepossibilitiesofthemarketingapproachforfurtheringsocialcauses.TheNationalSafetyCouncilandseveralotherso­cialagencieshavegraduatedfromoccasionalcam-17ChrisImhoff,”DDC’sDecisiveDecade,”TrafficSafe­tyMagazine,Vol.69(December,1969),pp.20and36.paignorganizationstofull-timemarketingorgani­zationswhichgothroughcyclesofinformationgathering,planning,productdevelopment,measur­ing,andreprogramming.SocialImplicationsofSocialMarketingTheauthorsbelievethatspecificsocialcausescouldbenefitfrommarketingthinkingandplan­ning.Problemsofpollutioncontrol,masstransit,privateeducation,drugabuse,andpublicmedicineareinneedofinnovativesolutionsandapproachesforgainingpublicattentionandsupport.Marketingmenbytheirtrainingarefinelyattunedtomarketneeds,productdevelopment,pricingandchannelissues,andmasscommunicationandpromotiontech­niques,allofwhicharecriticalinthesocialarea.Atthesametime,socialmarketingissufficientlydistinctfrombusinessmarketingtorequirefreshthinkingandnewapproaches.Socialmarketingtypicallyhastodealwiththemarket’scorebe­liefsandvalues,whereasbusinessmarketingoftendealswithsuperficialpreferencesandopinions.So­cialmarketingmustsearchharderformeaningfulquidproquostogainacceptanceoradoptionofitsproducts.Socialmarketinghastoworkwithchannelsystemsthatarelesswell-definedandlesspecuniarilymotivated.Onlythroughapplyingmar­ketingconceptsandtoolstoalargenumberofcaseswillthepowersandlimitsofthesocialmar­ketingapproachbelearned.Inaddition,thereisthedefinitepossibilitythattheovertmarketingofsocialobjectiveswillberesentedandresisted.Therewillbechargesthatitis”manipulative,”andconsequentlycontributes

12tobringingthesocietyclosertoOrwell’s1984.Therewillbechargesthatevenifnotmanipula­tive,socialmarketingwillincreasetheamountof”promotionalnoise”inthesociety,whichisfounddistastefulbothbecauseitemphasizes”trivialdif­ferences”andbecauseitis”noise.”Finally,socialmarketingwillbeaccusedofincreasingthecostsofpromotingsocialcausesbeyondthepointofanetgaineithertothespecificcauseorthesocietyasawhole.Inthecharitiesindustry,professionalmarketingincreasestheabsolutecostofraisingmoney,butitusuallysucceedsinraisingmoremoneyafterthesecostsaretakenintoaccount.However,whenoneconsiderstheentirepicture,itispossiblethatthetotalamountdonatedtocharitiesmaynotincreasebythesameamountastheprofessionalmarketingcosts.Theauthorsareconcernedwiththesepossibledysfunctionalconsequences,andtheymustobviouslybesubtractedfromthepotentialbenefitsthatsocialmarketingmightproduce.Sincesocialmarketingisjustemerging,thoseconcernedareencouragedtomonitoritcloselyinthesamedispassionatespiritthatbusinessmarketershavesoablyanalyzedanddocumentedthemanymanifestationsofbusinessmarketingpracticeovertheyears.SummaryThisarticleconsideredtheapplicabilityofmar­ketingconceptstotheproblemofpromotingsocialcauses.Socialmarketingwasdefinedasthedesign,implementation,andcontrolofprogramscalculatedtoinfluencetheacceptabilityofsocialideasandinvolvingconsiderationsofproductplanning,pric-..JournalofMarketing,July,1971ing,communication,distribution,andmarketingresearch.Toooften,socialadvertisingratherthansocialmarketingispracticedbysocialcampaigners.La­zarsfeldandMertonattributedthefailureofmanysocialadvertisingcampaignstothefrequentab­senceofconditionsofmonopolization,canalization,andsupplementationinthesocialarena.Wiebe,inhisexaminationoffourcampaigns,concludedthatacampaign’seffectivenessdependedonthepresenceofadequateforce,direction,anadequateandcom­patiblesocialmechanism,anddistance.Tothemar­keter,thesuccessofthecampaigndependsontheproperdevelopmentofproduct,promotion,place,andpriceconsiderations.Theseconceptswerede­finedandwereshowntohaveapplicabilitytosocialcauses.Thesocialmarketingprocesscallsformarketingresearchandthesubsequentdevelop­mentofawell-conceivedproductandappealsmov­ingthroughmassandspecializedcommunicationmediaandthroughpaidagentsandvoluntarygroupstoreachtargetedaudiences.Themarketingstylemaybehardorsoft,dependingonwhichisdeemedmosteffectiveinaccomplishingthesocialobjectives.Amarketingplanningapproachdoesnotguaran­teethatthesocialobjectiveswillbeachieved,orthatthecostswillbeacceptable.Yetsocialmar­ketingappearstorepresentabridgingmechanismwhichlinksthebehavioralscientist’sknowledgeofhumanbehaviorwiththesociallyusefulimplemen­tationofwhatthatknowledgeallows.Itoffersausefulframeworkforeffectivesocialplanningatatimewhensocialissueshavebecomemorerelevantandcritical…MARKETINGMEMOTheMarketingConceptandTechnology•…..Itisamistaketothinkoftechnologyasentirelyautonomous,althoughithassecuredforitselfagreatdealofautonomy.Anditisamistaketothinkthatthetechnologicalsystemisself-justifyinginitsownterms.Thepresentecologicalcrisisandfundamentalrethinkingoftechnology’sroleinthesocietyofthefutureistheprimafacieillustrationofthispoint.Wearegoingtoabandonmanytechnologicaldevelopmentseventhoug

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