Social norms and how they can affect your role as a member of society and within individualized social groups.

This discussion is taken from the readings in Chapter 6 and Chapter 7 and asks you to think through the challenges of social norms and power structures in society which can support or hamper social change. In this discussion you should respond to the following prompts:

In Chapter 6 you revisit social norms and how they can affect your role as a member of society and within individualized social groups. What do you think life would be like without social norms? Would it even be possible? Present why or why not.

In Chapter 7 you review power structures in society in relation to social change. This question considers how power is structured and your access to these levels of power. Think of an issue you would like to see addressed, and conduct a power analysis of who controls the decisions about that issue and how you might influence them. For example: what if your desire was that your local coffee shop serve only fair trade, organic coffee? Who makes the decision of what type of coffee is served? How might you convince them to switch to fair trade, organic coffee?

Social structures in society also create stratification and distinct social classes in society and obtaining a college degree has been seen to be a primary way for citizens to move up the social structure (social mobility). When you consider the college degree you are about to obtain, how will it affect your social class? Explain why you have made this determination.

Should be at least 350 words in length. Support your claims with examples from required material(s) and/or other scholarly resources, and properly cite any references.

This discussion is taken from the reading in Chapter 8 and Chapter 9 and asks you to think through the experiences of race, ethnicity, gender and sexuality in society today and how intersections of these identities can create even greater issues for those who hold multiple identities that experience inequality and discrimination. In this discussion you should respond to the following prompts:

Do you have a good friend who is of a different race to yourself? If so, how did you meet? With this friend, do you ever talk seriously about racial issues? Explain why or why not. Do you think you fully understand the impact of race on your friend(s)? Explain why or why not. If you do not have any friend(s) whom are of another race, why do you think that is?

How can sociology be used to (a) recognize, (b) publicize, and (c) combat racial discrimination? Be specific for each and clearly explain your response.

Explain what ‘equal rights’ means to you. How much equality is there in US society between men and women?

Why should men be interested in promoting equal rights and opportunities for women? What are some appropriate ways for men to help women gain greater social, political and economic power?

Describe how women of color are ‘doubly oppressed’ and lesbian women of color are ‘triply oppressed’ in our society. Does your friendship circle include people of various genders and sexual orientations? Explain why or why not.

Should be at least 350 words in length. Support your claims with examples from required material(s) and/or other scholarly resources, and properly cite any references.

This discussion is taken from the reading in Chapter 10 and Chapter 11 and asks you to think through how institutions impact social issues and social change. In this discussion you should respond to the following prompts:

In Chapter 10, the social institutions of the family and economy are discussed, along with how they can interact. How do you think the changes in the economic institution (for example: inflation, fewer jobs that pay a ‘family’ wage, the growing need for a college education) are affecting the social institution of the ‘family’.

Describe the relationship between the economic, family, and educational institutions in your own life. What do you think would happen to you if you did not have access to a college education? How would that lack of access affect your economic position and your ability to support a family?

Politicians can have a significant impact on the institutions that immediately impact us as citizens. Before this discussion, did you know the names of your US senators and representative? Do you know their party affiliations? Present why or why not. Why is it important to know who your civic leaders are and how they vote and support social change?

Should be at least 350 words in length. Support your claims with examples from required material(s) and/or other scholarly resources, and properly cite any references.

Requirements: 350 words each discussion

 

This book is dedicated to the memory of Aiden Tomkins Odell and to all the familiesworking to Þnd a cure for spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). You can learn about SMA andhow to help Þnd a cure by going to http://www.fsma.org/Home (http://www.fsma.org/Home) .To read AidenÕs story, go tohttp://www.fsma.org/FSMACommunity/Photos/memorialphotos/index.cfm?ID=2820&TYPE=1203(http://www.fsma.org/FSMACommunity/Photos/memorialphotos/index.cfm?ID=2820&TYPE=1203) ,and click on ÒOdell, Aiden Tomkins.Ó

 

Copyright © 2018 by SAGE Publications, Inc.All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronicor mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, withoutpermission in writing from the publisher.ISBN 978-1-5443-4348-8Pagination has been changed from the original book for this custom publication. Therefore, cross-referenceswill not be accurate.FOR INFORMATION:SAGE Publications, Inc.2455 Teller RoadThousand Oaks, California 91320E-mail: [email protected] (mailto:[email protected])SAGE Publications Ltd.1 OliverÕs Yard55 City RoadLondon EC1Y 1SPUnited KingdomSAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd.B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial AreaMathura Road, New Delhi 110 044IndiaSAGE Publications Asia-PaciÞc Pte. Ltd.3 Church Street#10-04 Samsung HubSingapore 049483

SPrefaceA Note From the Authors to the Students Reading This Bookociology is the coolest academic discipline. Seriously, what other area of study is better at helping youÞgure out how society operates and how you can use that knowledge to create social change? Both of uswere drawn to sociology because we wanted to Þgure out how to Þght injustice and promote democracy moreeffectively. It has also guided us in everyday life tasks, such as Þguring out how to get policies passed oncampus, deciding whom to vote for, and learning why itÕs vital to earn a college degree in a service-basedeconomy. This book is part of our efforts to get students hooked on sociology and, in the process, help them tobecome engaged and effective citizens who can strengthen our democratic society.This book is also part of a larger, national effort to Òeducate citizensÓ by encouraging students to participate incivic engagement exercises that connect the classroom to the community. Organizations such as TheDemocracy Imperative, Campus Compact, and the American Democracy Project are establishing movements tomake civic engagement a part of the college experience for all undergraduates. College leaders all across thecountry realize that as educators they are obligated to give students the tools they will require to be effectivecitizens as well as the skills they will need in the workforce. Leaders in all sectors of society understand thathigher education, when connected to the larger society, beneÞts everyone, on and off campus.We believe, as leaders of the American Sociological Association have noted when promoting public sociology,that sociology is particularly suited to teaching students what they need to know to become effective and fullmembers of our society. As the prominent sociologist Randall Collins has pointed out, the two corecommitments of sociology are (a) to understand how society works and (b) to use that knowledge to makesociety better. We believe that helping students learn how to think sociologically and use sociological tools is,in effect, enabling them to become better citizens. No doubt, the professors who assigned this book to you alsoshare this belief. They will gladly tell you why they think sociology is an incredibly useful and practicalacademic discipline.We also know that sociology is fun to learn and to teach. ThatÕs why we created a book that we hope will beenjoyable to use for both students and teachers. The exercises throughout the chapters allow students to connectthe sociological knowledge that they are learning to their campus and the larger community. So as soon as youdevelop your sociological eye, you will make use of it! Please note that you will need to make sure you followthe rules for research on human subjects and get approval from the Institutional Review Board on your campusbefore carrying out some of these exercises. (Your professor will tell you how to do so.) This book will alsohelp you to connect your own life to the larger society, as you learn about the Òsociological imaginationÓ andthe power it has to positively affect your community. The Sociologist in Action sections in each chapter willgive you powerful examples of how sociology students and professional sociologists (both professors andapplied sociologists) use sociology in myriad ways in efforts to improve society. By the end of the book, youcan create your own Sociologist in Action section, in which youÕll show how you used sociological tools inefforts to inßuence society. If you want to see more examples of sociologists in action please check out ourother books, Sociologists in Action: Sociology, Social Change, and Social Justice and Sociologists in Action onInequalities: Race, Class, Gender, and Sexuality.

We look forward to seeing your Sociologist in Action pieces and featuring many of them in future editions ofthis book and on the website for The Engaged Sociologist (http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e(http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e) ). In the meantime, we hope you enjoy the book and use the knowledge andskills you gain from it to make yourself a more effective citizen, strengthen our democracy, and work for amore just and civil society. We think that you will discover what we discovered when we began our journey associologistsÑthat sociology is a cool and powerful tool. And, of course, we hope that you have a lot of fun inthe process!

W6Deviant Behavior and Social Movementshat would be your reaction if you saw a man dressed in knee-length pants, wearing a wig, andsnorting tobacco? Would you think his behavior is deviant? Probably! However, snifÞng tobacco andwearing a wig and breeches were once considered normal for men. In fact, in colonial America, engaging insuch behavior demonstrated high social status. Our understanding of what is deviant behavior is sociallyconstructed and, therefore, changes over time and from society to society.Although behaviors such as incest and killing innocent people are considered deviant in almost all societies,much else of what is considered deviant behavior varies across cultures and time periods. Notions of whatconstitutes deviant behavior can also be situational. There are circumstances in which acts that would normallybe considered completely beyond the bounds of acceptable behavior, including many brutal acts of violence,can come to be seen as normal and appropriate. For example, soldiersÕ reports and memoirs frequently includeaccounts of acts that may seem unjustiÞable once the Þghting has ended but had seemed acceptable, evennecessary, in the midst of it. This chapter will discuss (a) how deviance is deÞned, (b) how the three majortheoretical perspectives and other theories view deviance, (c) why some social groups are labeled as deviant,and (d) how some social movements have changed society by ÒnormalizingÓ behavior that had previously beenthought of as deviant.As you will recall from Chapter 4 (ch0004.xlink.html) , cultural norms are socially constructed expectations forbehavior. A societyÕs norms include basic behaviors, manners and etiquette, and laws and legal code and followthe societyÕs unique culture and ways of doing things. As members of a society, we learn which behaviors areappropriate through socialization. Our actions are guided by how we see others behave, what we are taught byour socializing agents, and the reactions of those with whom we interact.Folkways are norms that are enforced through informal rewards and sanctions (e.g., approval or disapprovalfrom others). For example, we follow folkways when we hold the door for someone behind us, let people wespeak with Þnish their sentences without interruption, and make conversation with people we meet at parties.Violating these folkways might result in a dirty look or being considered rude, socially awkward, or strange.However, this type of deviant behavior hardly ever results in serious social consequences and never results inlegal repercussions.Mores, on the other hand, are those norms related to behaviors that reßect the values society holds most dear.Good sportsmanship, abiding by social and legal contracts, and adhering to certain sexual behaviors are allmores. Violating these norms results in much stronger reactions and, perhaps, criminal charges (many moresare supported by laws). For example, refusing to support a colleague in need, cheating on a girlfriend orboyfriend, or openly announcing you are bisexual often results in people expressing strong reactions that canhave negative repercussions (e.g., being labeled as Ònot a team playerÓ at work, being labeled as untrustworthy

and selÞsh by friends, or being thought of as sexually abnormal by some).Violations of our most powerful mores, those representing our deepest values (e.g., conÞning sexual relations tothose not closely related, limiting our meat eating to animals rather than other humans), are called taboos.IncestÑsexual relations between close family membersÑis a taboo in almost all societies. CannibalismÑthepractice of eating humansÑis also widely considered to be a taboo. Those who carry out such acts are regardedas socially repugnant and face widespread, if not universal, condemnation from the other members of theirsociety.Laws are norms that are formalized rules of behavior enacted by legislatures and enforced by formal sanctionscarried out by the criminal and civil justice systems. Laws provide guidelines as to what people should do (e.g.,drivers should stop at stop signs, citizens should pay taxes, parents should send their children to school) andwhat they should not do (e.g., commit rape, robbery, or insurance fraud, or possess or use certain drugs). Thosewho break laws are subject to Þnes, imprisonment, and possibly even capital punishment.

6.1 Functionalism and Devianceƒmile Durkheim (1895/1982) established the functionalist perspective on deviance. He maintained that deviantacts and those who commit them actually serve several useful and necessary purposes, or functions, for society.Deviants can help make the norms of society clearer to the majority population, unite the nondeviant membersof society, and even promote social change.Sometimes, it is difÞcult to know what the norms of society are until we see someone punished for violatingone. When some members of society are punished for committing deviant acts, the rules of society are clariÞedand reinforced for everyone. For example, seeing someone pulled over for speeding usually makes other driversslow down. Observing a classmate punished for plagiarism helps students recognize that stealing someoneelseÕs words or ideas is unacceptable behavior and that those who do so are liable to be punished. We alreadyknow that speeding and plagiarism are wrong, but seeing these mores violated reminds us of how important it isto abide by these rules and often (if only through fear of being punished) causes us to act as society wishes.Bridging and Bonding Social CapitalAccording to Durkheim (1895/1982), deviants can also unify members of society. When people see deviantbehavior as a threat, they come together to punish and root out the deviant members of society. United, they cancreate social capital, a network of interconnected people who can rely on one another and work together toaccomplish a goal. For example, in the mid-1990s, the parishioners of St. PatrickÕs parish in Brockton,Massachusetts, became closely united when they organized to confront a prostitution and drug operationheadquartered in abandoned buildings across the street from the church. The criminal activity centered in theabandoned buildings made the parishioners fearful when they came to church, and they were tired of beingafraid. They knew that they really had to do something when the pastor was propositioned by a prostitute on theway to Mass! Working together, they compelled the city to take over the houses (in lieu of back taxes owed),raze them, and drive out those using them for deviant acts that made the parishioners fear going to church.The experience of eliminating the deviants from their church neighborhood bonded the parishioners moreclosely as they learned that they could rely on one another and become a powerful force when united. Themembers of St. PatrickÕs parish were also able to make connections across the city of Brockton and join withthe members of different religious organizations to address safety issues, such as crime, that all Brocktoniansfaced. In doing so, they showed the power of what is known as bridging social capital. They were able to makeconnections (bridges) among different religious groups in Brockton that enabled them to begin to know andwork with one another effectively (social capital).Social capital is often a positive force. But when it works to bond members of a particular group to one anotherand isolate them from everyone else, rather than work as a bridge between groups, it can have negative effects.For example, crime rates in counties with greater percentages of residents afÞliated with Evangelical Protestantchurches are consistently higher than those in counties with relatively high numbers of mainline Protestants andCatholics. Evangelical churches tend to create bonding social networks that unite their members but isolatethem from the larger society, whereas mainline Protestants and Catholics tend to promote bridging socialnetworks that connect them to other groups in the larger community. These bridging networks allow membersof different groups to unite and develop effective structures to combat and prevent criminal behavior (Beyerlein& Hipp, 2005).Likewise, high levels of bonding capital among gang members can also lead to high crime rates in certain

neighborhoods. Gang members bound to their fellow members can be a powerful force of negative deviantbehavior (Choi & Sloane, 2012). Police ofÞcers know very well how difÞcult it is to combat gangs with highlevels of bonding capital, which tie them to one another and isolate them from the larger societysimultaneously.

6.2 Rational Choice Theory and CrimeAccording to rational choice theorists, people decide to either commit or not commit crimes based on theperceived costs and beneÞts of such behavior. If the punishment for crime is fairly certain and harsh and therewards for good behavior are reliable and enticing enough, crime rates are generally relatively low. Some areasthough, such as the city of New Orleans, have high crime rates. The violent crime rate in New Orleans in 2012was more than twice the national average (City-Data.com (http://City-Data.com) , 2014). There are few rewardsfor good behavior in New Orleans. The former mayor Ray Nagin was recently convicted of taking bribes whenin ofÞce. The poverty level in the city is more than double the national average. Meanwhile, many years ofpolice corruption have left residents wary of trusting the police (Guarino, 2012). The present mayor, MitchLandrieu, is aware of the problem and is trying to take steps to address it. He realizes the need for alternativeopportunities for residents and for proper social controls on both the population and the police to bring downthe high crime rates (Finn, 2012). LandrieuÕs ofÞce has established the NOLA for Life plan, with multifacetedgoals such as the following:1.   Stop the shootings2.   Invest in prevention3.   Promote jobs and opportunity4.   Get involved and rebuild neighborhoods5.   Improve the New Orleans Police Department.Mayor Landrieu credits the NOLA for Life plan with the 20% reduction in murders in 2013 (Harper, 2013;Martin, 2014).

6.3 Conßict Theory and DevianceAs you will recall from Chapter 2 (ch0002.xlink.html) , Marxist and other conßict theorists maintain that societyis made up of groups competing for power. In turn, they believe that norms and laws are largely created by andfor the beneÞt of those who hold the most power in society. Marx argued that the members of the ruling class(the owners of the means of production) use every instrument at their disposal, including shaping norms andlaws, to protect their interests. Therefore, the actions of the poor are more likely to be labeled as deviant andcriminal than those of rich individuals or major corporations.In The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison, Jeffrey Reiman uses the conßict perspective to argue that thecriminal justice system is biased against poor people and is in favor of wealthy individuals and corporations(Reiman & Leighton, 2010). He maintains that corporations actually do much more harm to society bycommitting acts that are not ofÞcially labeled ÒcriminalÓ than do individuals by committing acts that areconsidered crimes. For example, unsafe workplaces (e.g., leading to black lung disease, asbestos-based cancer,repetitive-motion injuries, or preventable deaths or injuries due to cave-ins in coal mines), unsafe medicalpractices (e.g., unnecessary surgeries, lack of proper medical care, prescribing combinations of drugs leading todrug interactions), environmental pollution (e.g., from cigarettes, from chemical and industrial factories), andlax oversight of consumer safety (e.g., defective tires, tainted meat) harm far more people than criminal actscarried out by individuals. However, they are relatively ignored by the judicial system, whereas the crimes ofpredominantly poor and minority citizens result in disproportionately severe punishments.

6.4 Symbolic Interactionism and DevianceSymbolic interactionists maintain that people learn to conform to or deviate from the norms of society throughtheir interactions with others. They stress that deviance is socially constructed and that deviant behavior islearned. Two of the most well-known theories on deviance that fall under the umbrella of the symbolicinteractionist perspective are differential association theory and labeling theory.Through his differential association theory, Edwin Sutherland (1947) maintained that people learn deviantbehavior by associating with people who commit deviant acts. People tend to base their own behavior on thebehavior of those with whom they interact. Therefore, those who are raised in families that violate social normsor spend much of their time with friends who break the norms of society will be more likely than others to actin deviant ways. For instance, Jonathan was involved in a mentoring program, Friends and Mentors for Change,for inner-city youth who are at high risk of not graduating from high school. His initial research results revealedthat when these kids, who face negative situations at their schools or homes, are surrounded by external forcesthat may inßuence them in negative ways, they are much more likely to commit deviant acts than when they arespending time in the Friends and Mentors for Change program, surrounded by more positive role models.Labeling theory, another symbolic interactionist perspective on deviance, focuses on the categorization ofpeople as deviant. Howard Becker (1963), the founder of labeling theory, maintained that behaviors andindividuals become deviant only when people with some social power label them as deviant. Once people solabeled accept this categorization, they begin to consider themselves deviant and act accordingly. For example,when a young woman becomes known to others as a drug addict, is ostracized by those who do not use illegaldrugs, and is given the label Òdruggie,Ó she begins to socialize more and more with fellow druggies and act likethe druggie that people perceive her to be. We can see the effects of this on high school campuses when kidswho have been given a label that makes them outcasts (e.g., Òloser,Ó Ònerd,Ó ÒburnoutÓ) begin to take on thequalities of that label, sometimes with violent results.Labeling Some Social Groups as DeviantAs noted above, deviance is a social construction, which means that behaviors are not in themselves normal ordeviant; they become deviant only when society deÞnes them as such. Unfortunately, it is easy and common todeÞne or perceive entire groups of people as deviant rather than merely deÞning speciÞc behaviors as deviantacts. For instance, racial proÞling is a controversial practice in law enforcement that involves subjecting peopleto greater scrutiny, or treating some people as potentially dangerous, based on stereotypes and prejudicesassociated with their perceived race.The state of New Jersey became a focal point for a national debate on racial proÞling in the 1990s. Blackmotorists complained, and an independent review conÞrmed, that they were being pulled over for routine trafÞcstops, and even searches, far more often than members of other racial and ethnic groups and often withoutcause (Lamberth, 1994). A whole new term has even entered our collective lexicon to describe this unfairtreatment: driving while black. A series of reviews followed, including a number of hearings in the New JerseyState Senate, resulting in the establishment of guidelines for law enforcement ofÞcers that point out that ÒanyofÞcer can unwittingly or subconsciously fall prey to racial or ethnic stereotypes about who is more likely to beinvolved in criminal activityÓ (New Jersey Division of Criminal Justice, n.d., para. 5) and mandate that ofÞcerswork to counter this fact by focusing on peopleÕs conduct rather than their racial or ethnic appearance (NewJersey Division of Criminal Justice, 2009). Police efforts still seem to disproportionately focus on racial

minorities. For example, the New York City Police DepartmentÕs Òstop and friskÓ policy seems to target racialminorities. In 2011, 87% of the 684,330 people stopped and questioned on the street by New York City policeofÞcers were either black or Hispanic. ÒTen percent of the stops led to arrests or summonses and 1 percent tothe recovery of a weaponÓ (Elignon, 2012, para. 15). In 2013, a judge declared the practice unconstitutional,saying that Òthe city adopted a policy of indirect racial proÞling by targeting racially deÞned groups for stopsbased on local crime suspect dataÓ (Goldstein, 2013).Police and other law enforcement agencies have many forms of proÞling at their disposal, most of which focuson behavior. A Rand Corporation commentary, ÒRacial ProÞling: Lessons From the Drug WarÓ (Riley, 2002),criticizes racial proÞling as ineffective. The report advocates Òtactical proÞling,Ó which would focus onbehaviors rather than identities. Law enforcement personnel using tactical proÞling would look for reasons notto suspect people when making otherwise random stops and searches, rather than focusing on reasons to targetpeople.

6.5 Deviance and Organizing for ChangeIt is useful for the well-being and maintenance of society to construct norms and to recognize forms ofdeviance. Without these, people would need to navigate the basic rules of behavior in every situation they enter.How inefÞcient and chaotic that would be! However, social norms that reinforce the worldviews and interestsof dominant groups (those in power) often act as repressive forces against the worldviews and interests ofminority groups and all those who choose to deviate (even in harmless ways) from the dominant culture. Oncea perspective takes on the veneer of ÒrealityÓ or ÒtruthÓ or Òthe right way,Ó it is difÞcult to change. Usually,only concerted, organized effort can effectively counter such social forces. And the history of the United Statesis full of people doing just thatÑcoming together to create the changes they desire for society.In addition to noting how deviants can help bind the nondeviant members of society together, Durkheim(1895/1982) also maintained that deviants can promote social change. He believed that societies would stagnateif they did not change and that all social change begins with deviance. Laws that do more harm than good forsociety must be violated. Society needs people willing to break them. U.S. and world history is replete withexamples of social deviants, such as women Þghting for equal rights, American revolutionaries (before the warfor independence was won), and civil rights leaders, who became heroes by protesting against and helpingoverturn unjust laws and governments. For example, Mildred Jeter, a black woman, and Richard Loving, awhite man, were considered criminals when they married in 1958, in violation of the law in their state ofVirginia that prohibited interracial marriage. However, their protest against this unjust law resulted in the 1967Supreme Court decision (Loving v. Virginia) that declared such laws unconstitutional, leading to a tremendousincrease in the number of interracial marriages in the United States.The U.S. civil rights movement is probably the most famous example of people performing deviant acts toorganize for social change. Before that movement, segregation laws in many areas of the country prohibitedblack Americans from using the same facilities or drinking from the same water fountains as white Americans.Under the Òseparate but equalÓ laws, blacks were relegated to inferior schools. During the 1876Ð1965 ÒJimCrowÓ era in the South, local and state laws in that part of the country mandated racial segregation. Blackpeople were harassed when attempting to vote during the period as well. Some were the victims of violence,and others were simply turned away without being allowed to cast their votes. Jim Crow laws also imposed alarge variety of other restrictions on black people that limited their rights in areas such as the workplace,schools, housing, transportation systems, parks, public swimming pools, and various business establishments.Anyone breaking these laws was considered deviant and deserving of legal punishment. It took many decadesof struggle, culminating in the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, to make opposing racism asocially approved, rather than a deviant, act.Rosa Parks, famous for her refusal to give up her bus seat to a white person, was not the only black personarrested in 1955 for violating segregation laws, but hers was the perfect Òtest caseÓ to take to the SupremeCourt. She was poised, respectable, and fully prepared for the negative publicity. ÒPeople always say that IdidnÕt give up my seat because I was tired, but that isnÕt true,Ó Rosa Parks (1992) wrote. ÒNo, the only tired Iwas, was tired of giving inÓ (p. 116). Parks, an elected ofÞcer of the local chapter of the National Associationfor the Advancement of Colored People, had been part of the group of activists who were strategizing the bestway to challenge the segregation laws, not just in court but in public awareness too. She had not planned ongetting arrested that day, but when she was told to move, she recognized the opportunity. By allowing herself tobe taken off the bus by the police, she provided the spark for a campaign that had already started to challengethe laws that made black Americans second-class citizens.

Parks and other activists formed the Montgomery Improvement Association, a coalition of local groups,including several church organizations, whose purpose was to demand the desegregation of buses withoutappearing to be too radical or threatening. A young pastor with no known enemies or personal agenda, Dr.Martin Luther King Jr., was selected to head the campaign. Despite the hardships that poor people faced,getting to work each day without public transportation, threats from motorists as they walked along the roads,and warnings that they would lose their jobs if they could not get to work each day on time, the black citizensof Montgomery organized themselves effectively and boycotted the buses for more than a year. By the timethey won their case in court, they had also fostered a national reexamination of the status of black people inAmerica. Although African Americans still face routine de facto (meaning in practice, though not in law)segregation, discrimination, and racial insults, the Montgomery bus boycott helped mobilize the tremendouseffort to tear down the laws that supported and ÒnormalizedÓ such actions.

6.6 Organizing for Environmental ChangeToday, norms are being challenged to address global climate change (also known as global warming). In townsand on campuses across the United States, the norms of cranking up the heat or air conditioning and throwingaway trash have been replaced with efforts to conserve energy and recycle all that citizens can. Though we havelong been dependent on coal, our growing awareness of the devastating impact of coal by-products has madethe Òstandard,Ó black smokeÐspewing coal plant a symbol of criminal negligence by corporations and the U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which many people now view as having failed to use its full power toprotect the environment. In 2008, frustrated at the inaction of the federal government, 12 states sued the EPAfor violating the Clean Air Act by not setting standards to control greenhouse gas emissions in new vehicles.1(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_44#note1) The Supreme Court ruled that the EPA mustregulate greenhouse gases. The EPA under the Obama administration has agreed to do so, declaring that suchemissions Òthreaten the public health and welfare of current and future generationsÓ (Woodside, 2009, para. 1).The former U.S. vice president Al Gore and the United NationsÕ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) won the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts to bring the impending environmental, social, andpolitical catastrophes of global warming to the publicÕs attention. The IPCC, a group of 1,300 independentscientiÞc experts from nations all over the world, maintains that human actions are fostering climate change onEarth that will likely have a dramatic impact on the planet. While climate change has occurred throughout thehistory of the Earth, the Industrial Revolution sparked a dramatic increase in the production of heat-trappinggases, which if left unchecked will lead to drastic environmental and social upheaval (IPCC, 2007, 2012).The Þfth assessment report by the IPCC (2013) states,Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes areunprecedented over decades to millennia. The atmosphere and ocean have warmed, the amounts of snowand ice have diminished, sea level has risen, and the concentrations of greenhouse gases have increased.(p. 3)The atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, and nitrous oxide have increased tolevels unprecedented in at least the last 800,000 years. CO2 concentrations have increased by 40% sincepre-industrial times, primarily from fossil fuel emissions and secondarily from net land use changeemissions. The ocean has absorbed about 30% of the emitted anthropogenic carbon dioxide, causingocean acidiÞcation. (p. 7)Continued emissions of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and changes in all components ofthe climate system. Limiting climate change will require substantial and sustained reductions ofgreenhouse gas emissions. (p. 14)Other studies indicate that warmer ocean temperatures will lead to higher levels of mercury in Þsh, as themetabolism of Þsh increases in warmer waters and they eat more. Mercury in humans has been connected tomedical issues such as heart attacks, high blood pressure, and learning disabilities in children (Dijkstra et al.,2013; Fears, 2013).Most nations have outlined plans and/or already taken clear steps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions; yet inthe United States, fewer than half of all Americans believe that dealing with global climate change should be ahigh priority for the nation, and few political leaders discuss it (Knight, Robins, Clover, & Saravanan, 2011;Pew Research Center, 2011; Rosenthal, 2011). While 97% of peer-reviewed articles on the topic argue that

global climate change is caused, at least in part, by humans, only 41% of Americans recognize that fact (YaleProject on Climate Change Communication, 2013). Just as there were once those who argued that tobacco wasnot harmful, some opponents of efforts to address global warming have tried to cast doubt on the veracity of thescientiÞc evidence of climate change (Dash, 2011). As lethal storms and environmental disasters, likeHurricane Sandy in 2012, the typhoon in the Philippines in 2013, the massive tornadoes and ßooding in parts ofthe United States in 2013 and 2014, and the ßooding in Europe in 2013 and 2014 (to name just a few),accumulate, however, even many doubters are starting to realize the dangers of unchecked global warming. Asthe National Climate Assessment pointed out (U.S. Global Change Research Program, 2014), residents of theUnited States have already begun to experience its impact, and the impact will only become more severe astemperatures continue to rise.Fortunately, efforts to address climate change exist on many fronts, including through higher education andthrough state, national, and global corporate initiatives. Young adults are those most likely to understand thethreat of global climate change. In a 2013 survey, among voters 35 years and younger, 80% support efforts byPresident Obama to address climate change. Practically all those who view him favorably, and more than half(56%) of those who do not regard him favorably, support such efforts by the president (Levin & Strimple,2013).Businesses also understand that unchecked global climate change can have very damaging effects on theirbottom lines. For example, Thailand faced the worst ßoods in half a century in 2011. Hundreds of Thai peoplewere killed, about half a million had to ßee their ßooded homes, a large percentage of the agricultural land wasßooded, thousands of places of work were closed, and hundreds of thousands of people could not work. TheThai economy suffered a steep decline, and the public was enraged at the governmentÕs inability to stem theßooding (Chachavalpongpun, 2011). Clearly, the Thai people suffered the most from the ßoods that hit theirnation. However, the effects of the ßooding in Thailand reached out across the globe. The supply chains ofToyota, Honda, Mitsubishi, Isuzu, Nissan, General Motors, Ford, and Mazda were disrupted. These companieshad assembly and part-making plants in the areas of Thailand that were ßooded, and the ßoods prevented theplants from operating.So the ßoods in Thailand resulted in a lack of cars and parts for car factories in other areas of the world. Theseother factories, even though they were not ßooded, were forced to remain idle (Vaidya & Rao, 2011). Thisnegatively affected not just Thailand but also the global companies with factories in Thailand, the variousnational economies the companies support, and the individual workers who rely on salaries from thosecompanies.The Coca-Cola Company has also faced supply and distribution problems due to climate change and nowrecognizes Òincreased droughts, more unpredictable variability, [and] 100-year ßoods every two yearsÓ aseconomic threats to its global business. This perspective Òreßects a growing view among American businessleaders and mainstream economists who see global warming as a force that contributes to lower gross domesticproducts, higher food and commodity costs, broken supply chains and increased Þnancial riskÓ (Davenport,2014, paras. 3Ð4). Coke has embraced water-saving technologies and is encouraging nations where it doesbusiness to take steps to curb climate change (Davenport, 2014).The World Bank has put climate change Òat the center of the bankÕs missionÓ (Davenport, 2014, para. 10). In2013, the president of the World Bank declared,No countryÑrich or poorÑis immune from the impacts of climate-related disasters. . . .Damages and losses from natural disasters have more than tripled over the past 30 years. Years of

development efforts are often wiped out in days or even minutes.While weÕve seen developed countries struggling to cope with blizzards and events like HurricaneSandy, developing countries have even less resources to mitigate the economic and human costs of thesedisasters. At the World Bank Group we are stepping up our mitigation, adaptation and disaster riskmanagement work. (Kim, 2013)Many of the largest corporations in the United States, including Walmart and the Þve leading oil companiesÑExxonMobil, ConocoPhillips, Chevron, BP, and ShellÑÒare planning their future growth on the expectationthat the government will force them to pay a price for carbon pollution as a way to control global warmingÓ(Davenport, 2013). They have accepted the fact that global climate change must be addressed and have madeallowances for such efforts in their business plans. They understand that the negative repercussions ofunchecked global warming will harm their businesses.Fortunately, we know that organized efforts can have a dramatic impact on the threat of global climate change.They have already greatly reduced the threat from ßuorinated gases, a type of greenhouse gas that once gravelythreatened the ozone layer. These gases stem from human-made sources, such as refrigerants, Þre extinguishers,and aerosol propellants (European Commission Climate Action, 2011). Thanks to the Montreal Protocol onSubstances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, created in 1987, ßuorinated gases have been reduced dramatically.All the nations in the United Nations signed the Montreal Protocol and agreed to reduce their use of productsthat emit these gases. This global effort has led to the survival of the ozone layer in our atmosphere and showsthat global climate change can be addressed with a united global effort.Other environmental success stories include the following:¥    Since 1970, the Clean Air Act (substantially revised and expanded in 1990 and amended many timesover the years) has led to a 72% decrease in levels of ozone, lead, carbon monoxide, nitrogendioxide, and sulfur dioxide (EPA, 2014).¥    In 2013, eight statesÑCalifornia, New York, Maryland, Oregon, Massachusetts, Connecticut, RhodeIsland, and VermontÑpromised to work together to substantially increase the number of zero-emission cars driven by ramping up the construction of charging stations. They want to make buyingand charging such vehicles easy for consumers and to have 3.3 million battery-powered cars, plug-inhybrids, and other clean-burning vehicles on their roads by 2025 (Dearen, 2013).¥    Thirty-eight states and the District of Columbia have Renewable Portfolio Standards that requireenergy providers to use renewable energy sources (e.g., solar, wind) as a portion of their energysupply (Leon, 2013).¥    By 2011, the majority of nations (at least 119) had established some type of target for renewableenergy or a renewable energy support policy (more than double the number that did so in 2005)(Sawin, 2011).¥    Between 2005 and the end of 2009, Walmart reduced its global greenhouse gas emissions by almost11%, and from 2010 to 2011, it reduced its plastic bag waste by 3.5 billion bags (Walmart, 2011).¥    In 2007, Google became carbon neutral, and the company supports many ÒgreenÓ initiatives.¥    In response to anticipated pressures from environmentalists and to help their own bottom line,ÒWestern multinationalsÑand in some cases, their Asian suppliersÑhave in the last Þve yearsstarted to build more environmentally sound factories in developing countries, green-buildingexperts sayÓ (Ives, 2014, para. 5).¥    In the United States and Canada, many hundreds of colleges and universities have made effectiveefforts to increase recycling efforts and reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and use ofnonrenewable energy. In collaboration with the U.S. Green Building Council, the Princeton Review(2014) publishes The Princeton ReviewÕs Guide to 322 Green Colleges, which describes how theseschools have displayed Òa strong commitment to sustainability in their academic offerings, campus

infrastructure, activities and career preparation.ÓThese efforts show signs of some progress and the potential for more. However, for us to effectively mitigateand adapt to global climate change (it is too late to stop it), more people must become aware of its reality andpotential impact. Without a more educated public, we cannot achieve the united global effort needed to dealwith this serious global threat.Sociologist in Action: Ellis JonesOn April 22, 1990, something changed for me. It was a Sunday. I was a student at the University ofSouthern California, and a friend invited me to walk down to a fair that was going on nearby. I didnÕt haveany plans, so I decided to join him. Apparently, it was something called ÒEarth Day.Ó There were tablesand booths everywhere, and people were excitedly milling about from one to the next. Every booth Ivisited offered me a different way to make a positive environmental impact: recycling, composting,conserving water, reusing old clothes, . . . the list went on and on.At the end of that day, I felt absolutely inspired to make the world a better place. In my mind, theenvironmental movement had experienced a stroke of true genius. They werenÕt asking people to joingroups, attend meetings, or organize rallies. Instead, they had opened up a completely new realm of actionfor peopleÑtheir own everyday lives. By engaging people in micro activism rather than asking them tocommit to the much more intensive work undertaken by full-time activists, they were essentiallydemocratizing access to social change. It was a way to expand the environmental movement to almostanyone despite their limits of time, money, skills, or circumstances.As soon as I realized this, I imagined that thousands of others were having the same revelation at thatsame moment of history. The environmental movement was laying the foundation for all other socialmovements to do exactly the same thing! The human rights movement, the social justice movement, theanimal rights movement, the feminist movement, the LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender)movement, and all the rest would begin to adapt this new technique to engage people everywhere inactions they could take in their own lives to contribute to some much needed social change.Granted, no particular action would add up to much in terms of impact, but if enough people wereinspired to act, the collective impact of thousands or tens of thousands or perhaps even millions of peoplewould redeÞne what kind of changes were possible around these issues. At the same time, all of thesepeople would now feel more invested in the outcomes that they themselves had been working toward intheir own way. Rather than relying solely on a relatively small group of activists to bear the weight ofthese daunting social and environmental problems, now everyone could take on a piece of thatresponsibility.The more I thought about this potential, the more I became convinced that what people really needed (orat least what I really needed) was a book that would collect as many of these actions as possible into asingle place. I was absolutely sure that someone would write it and I, in turn, would be Þrst in line to buyit. Ten years later, I was a sociology graduate student at the University of Colorado, Boulder. I had waited,patiently, for the imaginary author of this hypothetical book to appear, and she or he had yet to stepforward. In the meantime, I was teaching Social Problems, along with a number of other mainstay

sociology courses, and found that my own students were constantly asking what they could actually doabout all of these problems we were spending so much time reading about, discussing, and analyzing.I had waited 10 years and decided that was long enough. So I roped in two of my closest friends (alsofellow sociology grad students), and we spent the next year collecting all of the actions we could Þnd,from every source we could get our hands on, and distilled the results into a single book. We added asection summarizing the latest data on some of the most signiÞcant social and environmental problems weseemed to be facing at the beginning of the 21st century, and the result was The Better World Handbook:Small Changes That Make a Big Difference. It has since sold 25,000 copies, been added to more than 300college and university libraries worldwide, and been adopted in sociology classrooms across the country.But perhaps more important, itÕs even more widely used by people whoÕve never taken a sociology classin their life.The website (betterworldhandbook.com (http://betterworldhandbook.com) ) has had more than 550,000unique visitors since it was created. In a very practical sense, sociology provided the three of us with thetools we needed to uncover, understand, and translate our worldÕs social and environmental problems intoa form that allows each of us to personally contribute to their resolution.SOURCE: Courtesy of Ellis Jones.EXERCISE 6.1NonverbalSanctionsNext time you see someone give a nonverbal, negative sanction (a look of disgust, a shake of the head, orsome other nonverbal sign of disapproval), ask yourself the questions below.As you answer these questions, be sure to deÞne norms and socialization and distinguish betweenfolkways and mores.1.   What norm was being broken (i.e., what was the act that led the person to give a nonverbalnegative sanction)?2.   What was the reaction of the norm violator to the negative sanction?3.   What was your reaction to the interaction you witnessed between the norm violator and the persongiving the negative sanction?4.   Why do you think you reacted this way? How did your own socialization process inßuence yourreaction?EXERCISE 6.2BreachingFolkwaysOften, we are so used to following the norms of society, we forget that we could behave differently.

Harold GarÞnkel (1967), a sociologist most famous for his ÒbreachingÓ experiments, in which peoplewould break folkways to expose them, had students do things such as act like boarders in their parentsÕhome, offer to pay store clerks less or more money than the price indicated on an item, and questionevery statement a person made in a conversation. Through these experiments, his students challenged thenorms of social interaction and, in the process, brought them to light.Conduct your own breaching experiment on campus by carrying out the following steps:1.   The next time someone asks you how you are doing after saying hello, tell the person how you arereally doing. In fact, take several minutes to thoroughly relate how you are feeling at that time.2.   Repeat Step 1 with four different people.3.   In a one- to two-page paper, describe (a) how the four people reacted to your experiment, (b) howyou felt as you carried out the experiment, (c) how their and your reactions related to yourrelationship with them, and (d) what you learned about norms of interacting through carrying outthis experiment.EXERCISE 6.3How Do YouExplainCheating?1.   Why do you, personally, think students cheat on your campus?2.   How would rational choice theory explain cheating on your campus? Do you think rational choicetheory offers a good explanation? Why or why not? Be sure to Þrst explain rational choice theoryand then relate it to the example of cheating on your campus.3.   Are there one or more important factors that rational choice theory overlooks? If so, what are they?Why do you think these factors are overlooked?4.   Based on your answers to Questions 1 and 2, how would you propose to diminish cheating on yourcampus? Offer at least Þve practical suggestions.EXERCISE 6.4Global ClimateChange andPollutionOne of the major social problems we all face today is global climate change. China recently overtook theUnited States as the leading producer of greenhouse gases (Oster, 2009). Read ÒThe East Is GreyÓ athttp://www.economist.com/news/brieÞng/21583245-china-worlds-worst-polluter-largest-investor-green-energy-its-rise-will-have (http://www.economist.com/news/brieÞng/21583245-china-worlds-worst-polluter-largest-investor-green-energy-its-rise-will-have) . Then answer the following questions:

1.   What are some of the social and economic forces behind the dramatic increase in pollution fromChina?2.   Why are some members of the Chinese leadership fearful of emphasizing environmentalprotection over economic growth?3.   What are some of the reasons why the Chinese government now feels some pressure to becomemore open about and to address pollution in China?4.   What has been the reaction of the United States up to now toward (a) global warming and (b)pollution from China?5.   If you were the president of the United States, what steps would you take to address pollutionfrom China and global climate change in general?EXERCISE 6.5WhatÕs YourEcologicalFootprint?Go to the website http://www.myfootprint.org (http://www.myfootprint.org) , and determine yourecological footprint and your own impact on global climate change.1.   Describe your ecological footprint.2.   Were you surprised by what you found? Why or why not?3.   Go to Earthwatch at www.earthwatch.org (http://www.earthwatch.org) , click on your part of theworld, and then click on ÒGET INVOLVED.Ó How might you work with others to use socialcapital to connect (a) different groups on your campus, (b) different groups in your surroundingcommunity, and (c) your campus and surrounding community to work together to address globalclimate change?EXERCISE 6.6Google andDukeUniversityTeam Up toCaptureMethane andShow How ItCan Be Done!Learn about the Google and Duke University Partnership to Capture Methane at http://seedstock.com/?s=duke (http://seedstock.com/?s=duke) +and+google+hog+waste, and look through the video and article athttp://googlegreenblog.blogspot.com/2011/09/sometimes-greening-google-means-getting.html

(http://googlegreenblog.blogspot.com/2011/09/sometimes-greening-google-means-getting.html) . Then, write atwo-page essay that describes what you learned from the video and the article and how they inßuencedyour perspective on global climate change and how it should be tackled. Be sure to include a discussionof the roles of governments, corporations, and higher education in addressing climate change.EXERCISE 6.7Lunch CounterSit-Ins andOtherNonviolentProtestsOne of the more dramatic forms of protest during the civil rights movement was the Òlunch counter sit-in.Ó At these events, blacks took seats at lunch counters that served only whites and then refused to leave.During many of these sit-ins, white customers jeered, threw food at them, and threatened them, before thepolice came and dragged off the protesters.Use your libraryÕs electronic databases (e.g., the JSTOR or Academic Search Premier database) to Þndthree academic articles that focus on lunch counter sit-ins during the civil rights movement. Also, watchthe Þrst segment of the Eyes on the Prize documentaries (your school library should have a copy), inwhich the sit-ins are covered. Then, write a two- to three-page paper that addresses the followingquestions:1.   Given the fact that the protesters knew that they were not going to be served, what did they hopeto gain by doing this? Were they trying to change the law? Public opinion? The policies of thelunch counter establishments?2.   Do you think their strategy was successful? What are the beneÞts and positives of nonviolentprotest? What are the negatives and limitations?3.   Considering public opinion toward black Americans today and given what you have learned aboutsocial movements, (a) what sorts of public actions could black Americans do today to bringattention to the kinds of discrimination they face and (b) what actions can you personally take thatwould help diminish racial discrimination? Hand in a complete bibliography of your sourcesalong with your written answers.EXERCISE 6.8Studying aSocialMovementThere have been numerous social movements (organized campaigns for social, cultural, or legal change)in the United States that have met with varying degrees of success over the past 50 years. The culturalperiod known as Òthe sixtiesÓ (roughly 1963Ð1973) saw the rise of the second wave of the womenÕs

movement, the American Indian movement, the Brown Power movement (Latinos), an antiwarmovement (Vietnam), an international student and youth movement, and movements for poverty reliefand fair housing practices, gay rights, environmental rights, and animal rights, among others.Pick one of these movements. Use your libraryÕs databases to search for articles using key words andphrases such as ÒAmerican Indian movement,Ó Òorganization, successes, failures, media portrayal,Ó andÒgoals.Ó Then, answer the following questions:1.   What were or are the goals of the movement you have chosen?2.   How was or is the movement organized? How was or is it run? How was or is it viewed in thepopular media? How do you think the movement was or is organized, and how has its portrayal inthe media affected its ability to achieve its goals?3.   How successful or unsuccessful has the movement been in achieving its goals?4.   Imagine you were hired as a consultant to promote and advise the movement. What would you door say to help it achieve its goals? Be speciÞc and strategic, outlining plans to carry forth yourproposal.EXERCISE 6.9CampusActivism: Thenand NowThe 1960s were famous for student activism and student organizing. Who were these students, and forwhat were they advocating? How were they portrayed in the news media at the time? How are they beingportrayed by the media and history textbooks today? How successful were they? Write a three- to four-page paper that answers these questions and describes your reaction to what you have read by carryingout the following steps:1.   Go to the newspaper archive in your library.2.   Choose one regional or national paper for which there are issues available from 1963 through1973.3.   Scan through the issues published between 1963 and 1973 until you have located (andphotocopied) at least 10 articles about on-campus student activism.4.   For each article, note the following: (a) Does the article tell you what the students wanted? (b)Does the article tell you why they had those goals? (c) Does the article appear to have a positionin support of, neutral to, or opposed to the students? (d) For each case in which you have a clearsense of the studentsÕ goals, were they achieved? Did they change society?5.   Can you imagine 1960s-style student protests happening today on your campus? If yes, would theprotesters have similar or different goals from those of the 1960s protesters you read about? If no,explain why you think they would not take place today. Have other styles of protest replacedthem? Have students become less likely to protest and, if so, why?

EXERCISE 6.10The DisabilityRightsMovementRead ÒWelcoming Art Lovers With DisabilitiesÓ athttp://www.americanhistory.si.edu/disabilityrights/exhibit.html(http://www.americanhistory.si.edu/disabilityrights/exhibit.html) , and view, listen to, and read the DisabilityRights Movement display at http://www.americanhistory.si.edu/disabilityrights/exhibit.html(http://www.americanhistory.si.edu/disabilityrights/exhibit.html) . Then, answer the following questions:1.   According to the SmithsonianÕs Disability Rights Movement display, what do those in themovement seek to gain? How have some of their tactics mirrored those of other socialmovements?2.   Have you ever acted to support the efforts of the Disability Rights Movement? Why or why not?3.   Describe how you could help achieve the goals of the Disability Rights Movement.4.   How would the success of the Disability Rights Movement beneÞt all members of society,whether or not they are disabled?EXERCISE 6.11Organizing toAddressHunger1.   Check out the videos and other sources of information on the Take Part website athttp://www.takepart.com/place-at-the-table/videos (http://www.takepart.com/place-at-the-table/videos) and on the Feeding America website at http://feedingamerica.org/hunger-in-america.aspx (http://feedingamerica.org/hunger-in-america.aspx) to create a ßyer about hunger thatyou can pass out in the cafeteria at your school.2.   Bring the ßyers to your school cafeteria at a mealtime.3.   Sit down with different groups of students you do not know, give them your ßyer, and engage themin a conversation about hunger in America. Then, ask them if they would like to work with you toÞnd a way to assist the people in your area who are hungry. Be sure to put your contact informationon the ßyer and to have a sign-up sheet so that those who are interested can give you their names andcontact information.4.   Set a meeting time, and send an e-mail out to announce the meeting. Then, meet with thoseinterested, and during the meeting, formulate a plan to help the hungry in your area. For tips on howto run a meeting, you can look at page 4 of this website: http://assets.Þlemobile.com/15/get-involved/resources/Campus%20in%20Action%20Toolkit.pdf (http://assets.Þlemobile.com/15/get-involved/resources/Campus%20in%20Action%20Toolkit.pdf) .5.   Once you have formulated your plan, carry it out.6.   Report on (a) how you organized your group, (b) the results of your groupÕs efforts, and (c) whatstudents in general can do to help address the issue of hunger (based on what you learned on thehunger websites) in a letter to the editor or an article in your schoolÕs newspaper.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1.   What was the last norm that you broke? Think of the last folkway (rather than a more) that you violated.What was the reaction of those around you? How did it make you feel? Did the reaction affect yourwillingness to break the folkway in the future?2.   Imagine you own a global corporation. Why should you care about global climate change? What steps willyou take to protect your business from its harmful impacts? How does your perspective on global climatechange when you imagine you are an owner of a global corporation differ from the one you usually have?Why?3.   Have you ever broken a rule or law that you considered unjust? Why did you do so? Did you organizeyour ÒdeviantÓ behavior with other people, or did you violate the norm on your own? What were therepercussions? Did your action result in any lasting social change? Why or why not?4.   What are the norms that guide your classroom behavior? What would you consider deviant classroombehavior by students? How did you learn these norms? What are the negative sanctions for those whoviolate classroom norms?5.   What do you think are the greatest criminal threats to U.S. society? Do you think the criminal justicesystem effectively addresses those threats? Why or why not?6.   Are there any laws that you Þnd to be unfair or legal punishments for crimes committed that you think aretoo strong, harsh, or outdated? If not, why not? If so, what are they? Why do you think these laws andpunishments exist even though they are unfair? What values (and whose values) do they reßect? What dothese laws and punishments teach you about power relations in U.S. society?7.   What do you think life would be like without norms? Would it even be possible? Why or why not?8.   Think of some examples that support DurkheimÕs idea that deviance can serve positive functions forsociety. Now think of how deviance can have a negative inßuence on society. What are the situations inwhich deviance is most likely to have (a) a positive or (b) a negative effect on society?9.   Think about the social capital you have. Is it bonding or bridgingÑdoes it bond you to an isolated groupin society, or does it work to connect you to other groups? Give some examples of groups on your campusthat create (a) bonding or (b) bridging social capital. How do they affect the rest of the campus?10.   Do you conserve and recycle as much as you can? If so, why? If not, what would convince you to do so?11.   Review DurkheimÕs description of organic solidarity, and then describe why it is in the self-interest ofmost global business leaders to address global climate change. Why is it in your self-interest?12.   Recall what Cooley meant by the term looking-glass self. Do you think your college classmates see youas the type of person who would (a) participate in or (b) lead a protest on your college campus? Do youthink your high school classmates would give the same answers? Why or why not?SUGGESTIONS FOR SPECIFIC ACTIONS1.   Read ÒCan ÔGlobal WarmingÕs Six AmericasÕ Become a Melting Pot for Meaningful Action?Ó athttp://www.climatesciencewatch.org/2012/12/12/can-global-warmings-six-americas-become-a-melting-pot-for-meaningful-action/ (http://www.climatesciencewatch.org/2012/12/12/can-global-warmings-six-americas-become-a-melting-pot-for-meaningful-action/) . Then, go to the Student Environmental Action

Coalition website at http://seac.org/resources/ (http://seac.org/resources/) . Use the guides there to organizea group action on your campus. Be sure to obtain your instructorÕs approval before beginning your project.Actions may be local or national, educational or political. Keep a journal of your project, its outcome, thefeedback you get from others, and what you learned by doing it.2.   Identify a social issue that you support. (Consider movements to promote fair trade products, establishequal rights for gay Americans, create universal health care, etc.) Find a campus or local organization thatworks on this issue.a.   Attend meetings, and participate in the activities of the organization.b.   Write a letter to the campus newspaper explaining to your classmates what the issues are that thegroup is concerned with, how these issues affect students, how the group is trying to change peopleÕsopinions and feelings on this issue, and why they should join the organization too!Please go to this bookÕs website at http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e (http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e)to Þnd further civic engagement opportunities, resources, peer-reviewed articles, and updated web linksrelated to this chapter.NOTE1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_44#rnote1) .   You can read the statesÕpetition at http://www.pewclimate.org/docUploads/Mass-v-EPA-Petition.pdf(http://www.pewclimate.org/docUploads/Mass-v-EPA-Petition.pdf) .REFERENCESBecker, H. (1963). Outsiders: Studies in the sociology of deviance. New York, NY: Free Press.Beyerlein, K., & Hipp, J. R. (2005). Social capital: Too much of a good thing? Social Forces, 84(2), 993Ð1013.Chachavalpongpun, P. (2011, October 24). Floods threaten global trade hub. Yale Global. Retrieved fromhttp://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/ßoods-threaten-global-trade-hub(http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/ßoods-threaten-global-trade-hub)Choi, H., & Sloane, D. (2012). Does working together prevent crime? Social capital, neighborhoods and crime.In N. Brooks, K. Donaghy, & G. J. Knaap (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of urban economics and planning(pp. 230Ð247). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.City-Data.com (http://City-Data.com) . (2014). New Orleans crime rate. Retrieved from http://www.city-data.com/crime/crime-New-Orleans-Louisiana.html (http://www.city-data.com/crime/crime-New-Orleans-Louisiana.html)Dash, J. (2011, December 6). The Contrarians: Full essay with references. Retrieved from http://climate.uu-uno.org/articles/view/148487/?topic=50699#Quacks (http://climate.uu-uno.org/articles/view/148487/?topic=50699#Quacks)Davenport, C. (2013, December 5). Large companies prepare to pay price on carbon. The New York Times.Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/05/business/energy-environment/large-companies-prepared-to-pay-price-on-carbon.html?hp&_r=0 (http://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/05/business/energy-environment/large-companies-prepared-to-pay-price-on-carbon.html?hp&_r=0)Davenport, C. (2014, January 24). Industry awakens to threat of climate change. The New York Times.Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/24/science/earth/threat-to-bottom-line-spurs-action-on-climate.html (http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/24/science/earth/threat-to-bottom-line-spurs-action-on-climate.html)

Dearen, J. (2013, October 25). 8 states join to promote clean cars. The Boston Globe. Retrieved fromhttp://www.bostonglobe.com/news/nation/2013/10/24/states-join-forces-promote-clean-cars/4aTkMlnkleI9rhYwGCMcGO/story.html?s_campaign=8315(http://www.bostonglobe.com/news/nation/2013/10/24/states-join-forces-promote-clean-cars/4aTkMlnkleI9rhYwGCMcGO/story.html?s_campaign=8315)Dijkstra, J. A., Buckman, K. L., Ward, D., Evans, D. W., Dionne, M., & Chen, C. Y. (2013, March 12).Experimental and natural warming elevates mercury concentrations in estuarine Þsh. PLoS ONE. Retrievedfrom http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0058401(http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0058401)Durkheim, ƒ. (1982). The rules of the sociological method (S. Lukes, Ed.; W. D. Halls, Trans.). New York, NY:Free Press. (Original work published 1895)Elignon, J. (2012, March 22). Taking on police tactic, critics hit racial divide. The New York Times. Retrievedfrom http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/23/nyregion/Þghting-stop-and-frisk-tactic-but-hitting-racial-divide.html (http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/23/nyregion/Þghting-stop-and-frisk-tactic-but-hitting-racial-divide.html)Environmental Protection Agency. (2014). Detailed summary: Clean Air Act results. Retrieved fromhttp://www.epa.gov/air/caa/progress.html#pollution (http://www.epa.gov/air/caa/progress.html#pollution)European Commission Climate Action. (2011, September 26). Fluorinated greenhouse gases. Retrieved fromhttp://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/f-gas/index_en.htm (http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/f-gas/index_en.htm)Fears, D. (2013, October 13). Study links warmer water temperatures to greater levels of mercury in Þsh. TheWashington Post. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/study-links-warmer-water-temperatures-to-greater-levels-of-mercury-in-Þsh/2013/10/13/c86d43c6-3113-11e3-9c68-1cf643210300_story.html (http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/study-links-warmer-water-temperatures-to-greater-levels-of-mercury-in-Þsh/2013/10/13/c86d43c6-3113-11e3-9c68-1cf643210300_story.html)Finn, K. (2012, May 22). Mayor seeks more federal help to slash New Orleans murder rate (Reuters).Retrieved from http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/05/23/us-usa-crime-neworleans-idUSBRE84M06Q20120523 (http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/05/23/us-usa-crime-neworleans-idUSBRE84M06Q20120523)GarÞnkel, H. (1967). Studies in ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Goldstein, J. (2013, August 14). Police deptÕs focus on race is at core of ruling against stop-and-frisk tactic. TheNew York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/15/nyregion/racial-focus-by-police-is-at-core-of-judges-stop-and-frisk-ruling.html?hp (http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/15/nyregion/racial-focus-by-police-is-at-core-of-judges-stop-and-frisk-ruling.html?hp)Guarino, M. (2012, January 19). Rising murder rate may spoil Mardi Gras party (Reuters). Retrieved fromhttp://www.reuters.com/article/2012/01/19/us-crime-neworleans-idUSTRE80I1RQ20120119(http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/01/19/us-crime-neworleans-idUSTRE80I1RQ20120119)Harper, J. (2013, August 16). New Orleans murder rate falls in Þrst half of 2013, rape cases on the rise (NOPDreports). The Times Picayune. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nola.com/crime/index.ssf/2013/08/new_orleans_murder_rate_falls.html(http://www.nola.com/crime/index.ssf/2013/08/new_orleans_murder_rate_falls.html)Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2007). Climate change 2007: Synthesis report. Retrieved fromhttp://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spm.html(http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spm.html)Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2012). Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters toadvance climate change adaptation (C. B. Field, V. Barros, T. F. Stocker, D. Qin, D. J. Dokken, K. L.Ebi, . . . P. M. Midgley, Eds.; A special report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved fromhttp://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/special-reports/srex/SREX_Full_Report.pdf (http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/special-

reports/srex/SREX_Full_Report.pdf)Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2013, September 27). Working Group I contribution to the IPCCÞfth assessment report climate change 2013: The physical science basis summary for policymakers.Retrieved from http://graphics8.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/science/27climate-ipcc-report-summary.pdf (http://graphics8.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/science/27climate-ipcc-report-summary.pdf)Ives, M. (2014, January 7). Slowly, AsiaÕs factories begin to turn green. The New York Times. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/08/business/international/asian-factories-see-sense-and-savings-in-environmental-certiÞcation.html (http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/08/business/international/asian-factories-see-sense-and-savings-in-environmental-certiÞcation.html)Kim, J. W. (2013, February 16). World Bank president Jim Kim at G20 meeting: Climate change representsreal, present danger. Washington, DC: World Bank. Retrieved fromhttp://www.worldbank.org/en/news/speech/2013/02/16/world-bank-president-jim-kim-at-g20-meeting-climate-change-represents-real-present-danger(http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/speech/2013/02/16/world-bank-president-jim-kim-at-g20-meeting-climate-change-represents-real-present-danger)Knight, Z., Robins, N., Clover, R., & Saravanan, D. (2011, January 13). Climate investment update (HSBCGlobal Research). Retrieved from http://www.research.hsbc.com/midas/Res/RDV?ao=20&key=68W7FaNQA0&n=288184.PDF (http://www.research.hsbc.com/midas/Res/RDV?ao=20&key=68W7FaNQA0&n=288184.PDF)Lamberth, J. (1994). Revised statistical analysis of the incidence of police stops and arrests of blackdrivers/travelers on the New Jersey Turnpike between Interchanges 1 and 3 from the years 1988 through1991 (Unpublished manuscript). Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA.Retrieved from http://www.mass.gov/eopss/docs/eops/faip/new-jersey-study-report.pdf(http://www.mass.gov/eopss/docs/eops/faip/new-jersey-study-report.pdf)Leon, W. (2013, June). The state of state renewable portfolio standards. Retrieved fromhttp://www.cleanenergystates.org/assets/2013-Files/RPS/State-of-State-RPSs-Report-Final-June-2013.pdf (http://www.cleanenergystates.org/assets/2013-Files/RPS/State-of-State-RPSs-Report-Final-June-2013.pdf)Levin, A., & Strimple, G. (2013, July 24). Recent polling on youth voters. Retrieved fromhttp://www.lcv.org/issues/polling/recent-polling-on-youth.pdf (http://www.lcv.org/issues/polling/recent-polling-on-youth.pdf)Martin, N. (2014, January 2). New Orleans murders fall again in 2013 (NOLA.com (http://NOLA.com) ). TheTimes-Picayune. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nola.com/crime/index.ssf/2014/01/2013_new_orleans_murder_rate_d.html(http://www.nola.com/crime/index.ssf/2014/01/2013_new_orleans_murder_rate_d.html)New Jersey Division of Criminal Justice. (2009). Eradicating racial proÞling companion guide. Retrieved fromhttp://www.state.nj.us/lps/dcj/agguide/directives/racial-proÞling/pdfs/ripcompanion-guide.pdf(http://www.state.nj.us/lps/dcj/agguide/directives/racial-proÞling/pdfs/ripcompanion-guide.pdf)New Jersey Division of Criminal Justice. (n.d.). Overview of New JerseyÕs racial proÞling policy. Retrievedfrom http://www.state.nj.us/lps/dcj/agguide/directives/racial-proÞling/pdfs/overview-racial-policy.pdf(http://www.state.nj.us/lps/dcj/agguide/directives/racial-proÞling/pdfs/overview-racial-policy.pdf)Oster, S. (2009, April 21). Group urges Beijing to cut coal emissions. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved fromhttp://online.wsj.com/article/SB124021811385234435.html(http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124021811385234435.html)Parks, R. (with Haskins, J.). (1992). Rosa Parks: My story. New York, NY: Dial Books.Pew Research Center. (2011, June 10). Views of Middle East unchanged by recent events (Pew Research Centerfor the People & the Press). Retrieved from http://www.people-press.org/2011/06/10/views-of-middle-east-unchanged-by-recent-events (http://www.people-press.org/2011/06/10/views-of-middle-east-unchanged-by-recent-events)

The Princeton Review. (2014). The Princeton ReviewÕs guide to 322 green colleges. Retrieved fromhttp://www.princetonreview.com/green-guide.aspx (http://www.princetonreview.com/green-guide.aspx)Reiman, J., & Leighton, P. (2010). The rich get richer and the poor get prison: Ideology, class, and criminaljustice (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.Riley, K. J. (2002, Summer). Racial proÞling: Lessons from the drug war. Rand Review, 26(2). Retrieved fromhttp://www.rand.org/pubs/periodicals/rand-review/issues/rr-08-02/proÞling.html(http://www.rand.org/pubs/periodicals/rand-review/issues/rr-08-02/proÞling.html)Rosenthal, E. (2011, October 15). Where did global warming go? The New York Times. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/16/sunday-review/whatever-happened-to-global-warming.html?pagewanted=all (http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/16/sunday-review/whatever-happened-to-global-warming.html?pagewanted=all)Sawin, J. L. (2011). Renewables 2011 global status report. Retrieved fromhttp://germanwatch.org/klima/gsr2011.pdf (http://germanwatch.org/klima/gsr2011.pdf)Sutherland, E. H. (1947). Principles of criminology (4th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: J. B. Lippincott.U.S. Global Change Research Program. (2014). National Climate Assessment. Retrieved fromhttp://nca2014.globalchange.gov/ (http://nca2014.globalchange.gov/)Vaidya, V., & Rao, V. (2011, December 8). Impact of Thailand ßoods on automotive industry and supply chain.Logistics Digest. Retrieved from http://www.logisticsdigest.com/inter-article/inter-logistics-insight/item/7429-impact-of-thailand-ßoods-on-automotive-industry-and-supply-chain.html(http://www.logisticsdigest.com/inter-article/inter-logistics-insight/item/7429-impact-of-thailand-ßoods-on-automotive-industry-and-supply-chain.html)Walmart. (2011). Building the next generation Walmart . . . responsibly: 2011 Global responsibility report.Retrieved from http://walmartstores.com/sites/ResponsibilityReport/2011/WalmartGRR.pdf(http://walmartstores.com/sites/ResponsibilityReport/2011/WalmartGRR.pdf)Woodside, C. (2009, May 19). Was an ÒhistoricÓ EPA ruling on GHGs reßected by historically good coverage?(The Yale Forum on Climate Change and the Media). Retrieved fromhttp://www.yaleclimatemediaforum.org/2009/05/epa-ruling-on-ghgs/(http://www.yaleclimatemediaforum.org/2009/05/epa-ruling-on-ghgs/)Yale Project on Climate Change Communication. (2013, June 3). ScientiÞc and public perspectives on climatechange. Retrieved from http://environment.yale.edu/climate-communication/Þles/ClimateNote_Consensus_Gap_May2013_FINAL6.pdf(http://environment.yale.edu/climate-communication/Þles/ClimateNote_Consensus_Gap_May2013_FINAL6.pdf)

D7Big Money DoesnÕt Always WinStratiÞcation and Social ClassMoney, money, money . . . itÕs a rich manÕs world.1(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_49#note1)ÑABBAo you agree with the lyrics of this ABBA song? Do you think ÒitÕs a rich manÕs worldÓ? In this chapter,we will discuss social stratiÞcationÑhow societies distribute the things of value to them and rankgroups of people according to their access to what is valued. Although people may prize certain things more insome societies than in others (e.g., privacy, tea or coffee, certain spices, etc.), almost everyone everywhereplaces a high value on money.In the United States, the desire for money, combined with a lack of government oversight of some bankingpractices, led to the Great Recession of 2008 to 2009, from which we have not yet fully recovered. The Glass-Steagall Act, passed in 1933 after the stock market crash of 1929, separated commercial banking (whichaccepts deposits and lends money) from investment banking (which issues securities and invests using credit).These changes were enacted to prevent banks from taking investment risks that could jeopardize their solvency.However, banks, desiring the ability to make more money, lobbied for the repeal of the act. Once the Glass-Steagall Act was repealed in 1999, commercial banks were once again able to invest their clientsÕ depositedmoney and practice both investment and commercial banking within one company.During the same time period, under a drive to give all Americans the opportunity to own their own homes,government mortgage providers Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac lowered their standards and began issuingmortgages to more people with below-average credit ratings and low incomes (Roberts, 2008). Meanwhile, asgovernment regulators turned a blind eye, other mortgage lenders followed suit; housing prices rosedramatically as more and more people bought homes, and it became a sellerÕs market. With no preventativegovernment regulations, the mortgage lenders proÞted enormously by collecting fees to guide homeowners intotaking on mortgages they could not afford. The lenders bundled toxic mortgages (whose owners were likely todefault) into Òcollateralized debt obligationsÓ (CDOs). They then divided the bundles into more CDOs and soldthem to banks, which sold them to investors, which purchased insurance against possible losses on the bundledmortgages. The lack of government regulation and adequate oversight allowed the companies that insured theCDOs to fail to maintain the resources needed to pay possible insurance claims. Therefore, when thehomeowners defaulted on loans they were never able to afford and investors Þled claims to cover their losseson CDOs, the insurance companies were unable to cover the losses, and the entire system fell apart.Credit rating agencies, whose job it is to grant credit scores that provide a rating of securities, also failed to do

their jobs responsibly. These credit rating agencies (MoodyÕs, Standard and PoorÕs, and Fitch), paid by thebanks to which they issue credit scores, granted them high credit ratings, leading investors in these banks intothinking that their money was not at risk (Morgenson, 2008). When these CDOs started to fail, many investorslost money, and some banks, such as Bear Stearns and Lehman Brothers, went bankrupt, while others weresaved through government bailouts to prevent further damage to the economy (The Financial Crisis InquiryCommission, 2011).As a result of the above events, the stock market suffered the worst decline since the Great Depression, and thehousing market collapsed, as the worth of homes plummeted and toxic mortgages and high unemployment ratesled to defaults on mortgages. Retirees lost money they counted on for living expenses. Institutions that relied oninterest and dividends from investments (e.g., state pension funds, charities, colleges, art museums, and grantfunders) faced drastic cuts in their income, and many had to stop providing services and lay off employees. Themost vulnerable workers were hit the hardest by the recession. The working poor have faced the most job cutsand the greatest number of lost work hours. As Andrew M. Sum, director of the Center for Labor MarketStudies at Northeastern University, states, ÒLow-income people are the big losers when the economy turnsdownÓ (quoted in Eckholm, 2008, para. 6). A loss of a few hours of work each week, never mind a layoff, canbe devastating for workers already trying to scrape by on low-wage work.As we write these words, the efforts of the Obama administration and the leaders of other nations to stimulatethe global economy seem to have had some positive impact. However, while the U.S. economy has begun torecover, its growth has been uneven, and inequality has increased. The economy has recovered for the verywealthy, as the stock market reached record highs in 2013. However, the average family income, whencontrolled for inßation, is actually lower today than it was 25 years ago (DeNavas-Walt, Proctor, & Smith,2013; Irwin, 2013). Today, the richest 1% of U.S. households owns more wealth than all of the bottom 90%combined! Income and wealth inequality has not been so uneven since before the Great Depression hit in 1929.The share of income going to the very rich (the top 1%) has increased dramatically, from 8% in 1980 to 20.1%in 2010 (Fry & Taylor, 2013; Piketty & Saez, 2007; Prante, 2009; Saez, 2012). This trend is evident in thebusiness world, as companies that cater to wealthy clientele, like Barneys stores and Capital Grille restaurants,have prospered and those that market to middle-class buyers, like Sears and Red Lobster, have struggled.Growth in General Electric sales of high-end appliances far outpaces the sales growth of more moderatelypriced appliances (Schwartz, 2014) (see Figure 7.1(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_46#Þg7.1) ).

7.1 Theories of Social StratiÞcationClassical TheoriesOf the three main theories we discuss in this book (functionalism, conßict theory, and symbolic interactionism),the consensus among sociologists is that conßict theory is the most useful when examining social stratiÞcation.The two founders of sociology who used the conßict perspective, Karl Marx and Max Weber, provided two ofthe most important classical theories of stratiÞcation. All of MarxÕs work, and much of WeberÕs, focused onexamining and explaining inequality in society.As you will recall from earlier chapters, Karl Marx spent his life examining how power is unequally distributedand how we might change society to make this distribution process fair. In most of his work, he maintained thatthere are only two classes in society: (1) those who own the means of production (the owners, or bourgeoisie)and (2) those who work for them (the workers, or proletariat). Marx believed that the workers would eventuallydevelop a Òclass consciousness,Ó realize that their interests are in opposition to those of the owners, andultimately overthrow the bourgeoisie.Figure 7.1  An Uneven RecoverySOURCE: Retrieved from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/04/23/a-rise-in-wealth-for-the-wealthydeclines-for-the-lower-93/ (http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/04/23/a-rise-in-wealth-for-the-wealthydeclines-for-the-lower-93/) .Weber, who lived a generation or so after Marx, expanded on MarxÕs ideas (see Weber, 1968). Whereas Marxmaintained that power in society directly relates to ownership of the means of production (those who ownindustries), Weber recognized that nonowners who possess useful skills can also have some power. He added athird class to MarxÕs two-tiered class system. He divided the nonowners into a middle class (those who hadskills based on knowledge) and a working class (those who did manual labor). Weber anticipated the fact thatas societies became more complicated and technologically advanced, the skills of the middle class would

become more in demand than those of the working class. The middle class would, therefore, be paid more andhave greater access to the things valued in society (better schools, neighborhoods, housing, etc.) than themembers of the working class. Unlike Marx, he didnÕt envision a class uprising that would result in thedestruction of the owning class.Contemporary TheoriesToday, power elite theories, a modern offshoot of the classic conßict perspective, represent the dominantperspective in studies of economic and political power. These theories maintain that many people do not botherparticipating in the political process because they feel alienated from it. Power elite theorists, such as C. W.Mills (1956/1970) and William Domhoff (1967/2005, 1983), note that a relatively small, organized group ofpeople hold key positions in the major institutions of society and make continuous (and, overall, successful)efforts toward keeping themselves in power. Mills noted a connection among key players in the military,corporations (that supply the military and help Þnance campaigns for those seeking ofÞce in government), andthe government (which chooses which corporations will supply the military). Domhoff (1967/2005) goesfurther, arguing that there is a Òruling classÓ composed of interrelated leaders in the corporate, political, andpolicy-planning network worlds. Members of this group grew up together, attending the same private schools,social clubs, and colleges. As adults, they occupy positions of power and ÒruleÓ America.Bringing the conßict perspective to a global level, the sociologist Charles Derber (2000, 2003) describes aworld in which corporations, rather than nations, increasingly dominate. Derber maintains that governments actdisproportionately in the interest of global corporations rather than their own citizens. He calls for a globaldemocratic grassroots movement, such as the Occupy movements, to change the mode of globalization and putÒpeople before proÞtÓ (Derber, 2003). In doing so, he claims that we can reduce inequalities between socialclasses across the globe.

7.2 Social ClassWhat social class are you? Wait, we can guess (with at least 95% certainty) how you will answer! When askedon surveys, almost all Americans will say that they are middle class. Most, however, have no social scientiÞcunderstanding of what Òsocial classÓ actually means.Neither do most Americans have any idea of the level of economic inequality in the United States. In onerecent study, a representative sample of Americans were asked to look at three charts that represented differentdistributions of wealth and to guess which one indicated the wealth distribution in the United States. The chartselected by the majority of respondents actually showed the distribution of wealth in SwedenÑthe nation withthe greatest economic equality! When they were asked which would be the most ideal degree of wealthdistribution in a society, they selected the chart that indicated an even more equitable distribution of wealth thanthat found in Sweden. Few people were aware of the lopsided distribution of wealth in the United States andthat the richest 20% of Americans actually own approximately 84% of the wealth, compared with 58% for thetop 20% in Sweden and 32% for the wealthiest 20% in the ÒidealÓ nation (Norton & Ariely, 2011).We need to recognize economic inequality in order to understand the inßuence of social class on our societyand on the lives of individual people. According to social scientists (those who measure class professionally),people in the same social class have relatively equal access to what is valued in their society (e.g., money,power, good schools, nice neighborhoods, etc.) and have similar lifestyles. Once people realize this, they canusually recognize the many differences concealed by the almost universal Òmiddle classÓ label in the UnitedStates. For example, it quickly becomes clear that whereas both high-level managers and sales associates tendto refer to themselves as middle class, members of these respective occupations do not have similar lifestyles oraccess to what is valued in U.S. society. And all this doesnÕt even address the fact that your answer to thequestion ÒWhat social class are you?Ó was likely an answer about your perceived class in the United States andnot about your perception of your class within the global economic system. In the global economic system, themajority of Americans would be considered upper class.Because social scientists understand that almost all Americans will simply put down Òmiddle classÓ if asked tospecify their social class, most of them measure social class by looking at the income, education, andprofession of the respondents. However, this still leaves some room for error.2(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_49#note2) In general, most truly middle-class people in theUnited States have some college education, have professions with salaries (rather than jobs where they are paidby the hour), and earn within a speciÞed range around the median income. Sometimes, social scientists breakdown members of the middle class into two groups: middle class (white-collar workers) and working class(blue- or pink-collar workers3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_49#note3) ). Blue- and pink-collar jobs, which usually do not require as much education, tend to pay less than white-collar work.4(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_49#note4) White-collar work tends to require at least abachelorÕs degree.The importance of attaining a college degree cannot be overstated. Those who hope to attain a class ranking ofat least middle class generally need to have one or more of the following: (a) a high level of education, (b)connections to those in power, and (c) a legacy of wealth passed down to them by their family. While one has tobe born lucky to have the third requirement (passed-down wealth), the second (connections to those in power)also requires a certain degree of good fortune. You need to have access to people in power in order to establishconnections with them. A high degree of education, while increasingly expensive and open only to those with a

certain level of aptitude, remains the most readily available path to a middle-class life for most Americans. Thegaps in income levels and employment rates between those with and without a college degree have never beengreater. In 2013, the unemployment rate for those with a 4-year college degree was 2.8%, compared with 8.1%for those with a 2-year degree and 12.2% for those with only a high school diploma. Likewise, only 5.8% ofthose with 4-year college degrees were in poverty, compared with 14.7% of those with a 2-year degree and21.8% of those with just a high school education (Pew Research Center, 2014).Sex and race also relate to social class. In short, it helps to be male and white. Female heads of households arealmost twice as likely as male heads of families and Þve times as likely as married couples to live below thepoverty level. In 2012, an estimated 15% of Americans lived in poverty. The poverty rate also variesdramatically according to race. In 2012, 9.7% of non-Hispanic whites, 27.2% of blacks, 11.7% of Asians, and25.6% of Hispanics lived in poverty (DeNavas-Walt et al., 2013). The recent subprime mortgage crisis hasdisproportionately affected minoritiesÑthose most likely to have such mortgagesÑand broadened the wealthdivide between white males and Hispanic or Latino, black, and female Americans. WeÕll talk more about theconnections between sex and race and social class in Chapters 8 (ch0008.xlink.html) and 9 (ch0009.xlink.html) ofthis book.

7.3 Social Class and Political RepresentationVoter turnout is strongly related to social class. To put it simply, poor and working-class people are much lesslikely to vote than middle-class and wealthier Americans. Although always a feature of U.S. elections, the classgap has now become a chasm. Many poor Americans do not see the issues that they care about being addressedby politicians and, therefore, see no use in going through the hassles of registering to vote and voting. Some arealso working so hard, piecing together two or three jobs, and so preoccupied with Þnding a way to pay the rentand buy food that they have little time or energy to keep up with current political issues and to vote. HomelessAmericans, without proof of residence, face even more difÞculty in exercising their right to vote.The median household income in 2012 was approximately $50,000, meaning about half of Americanhouseholds made more and half made less than $50,000. In the presidential election of 2012, though, 59% ofvoters made $50,000 or more, while just 41% made less than $50,000 (NonproÞt VOTE, 2012). Therefore,middle- and high-income Americans hold more sway at the ballot box.Education affects voter turnout as well. These days, candidates and political parties tend not to reach out toyoung people who do not attend college, and few of them tend to vote. In the 2012 election, 63% of youngpeople with some college experience voted, compared with just 36% of those without any college experience(NonproÞt VOTE, 2012).The whole infrastructure of churches, grassroots political parties, local newspapers, and unions that onceintroduced working-class young people to politics is now shattered. And the sophisticated turnoutoperations of modern presidential campaigns focus on likely voters, meaning that college campuses getlots of attention but no one reaches young people who work in retail, service industries, andmanufacturing. The hyper-efÞcient Obama campaign contacted just 5.8% of youth without collegeexperience. (NonproÞt VOTE, 2012, p. 24.)The decline of union power has particularly diminished the inßuence of working-class Americans on theelectoral process. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS, 2006, 2014a), union membership in 2013had dropped to half of what it was in 1983, with a 35.3% membership rate for public sector workers and 6.7%for private sector workers. Wages of union workers remained much higher than those of nonunionized workers.In 2013, the median weekly salary of full-time union workers was $950, while the median weekly salary offull-time nonunion workers was $750 (BLS, 2014b). In addition to ensuring relatively good wages, unions havetraditionally been a very powerful Òget out the voteÓ force for (usually Democratic) candidates. However, as thepower of unions has declined, so has the ability of the working class to have its economic interests addressedby politicians.Even Americans who do vote realize that only a very small percentage of the population has the means to runfor high political ofÞce. The amount of money people must be able to raise to establish a legitimate campaignprohibits the vast majority of people from running for such positions. For example, during the 2012congressional elections, the average candidate running for a position in the House of Representatives or theSenate spent $526,818 and $2,318,358, respectively (OpenSecrets.org (http://OpenSecrets.org) , 2012a). At thepresidential level, the numbers are even more staggering: President Obama and Mitt Romney and their alliesraised approximately a billion dollars each during the presidential election of 2012 (OpenSecrets.org(http://OpenSecrets.org) , 2012b).The overall result of the current electoral system5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_49#note5)in the United States is that most poor and working-class Americans neither vote nor run for political ofÞce. In

turn, they are largely ignored by political ofÞceholders, who must respond to constituents who do vote andcontributors who help them raise the vast sums of money needed to gain and maintain their positions.

7.4 The Power of Organized PeopleThe information above may sound depressing to anyone committed to true democracy in the United States.However, it is only part of the picture. Although civic organizations may not exist in the size and number theyonce did (Skocpol, 2003), there are many grassroots political organizations successfully representing lowerincome Americans. While we usually do not hear about their efforts on the evening news, Barack ObamaÕsexperience as a community organizer has made more people aware of their existence. These organizations areaccomplishing the vital task of giving voice to poor and working-class persons.One vehicle for this is through broad-based organizing associations (organizations of organizations, includingchurches, synagogues, mosques, nonproÞts, parents associations, and unions). These civic groups, in essence,teach people to use a Òsociological eyeÓ and a Òsociological imaginationÓ as they train them to becomeeffective citizens. They train ordinary Americans to question the status quo, connect their personal problems topublic issues, and hold politicians and business leaders accountable to the citizenry. While there are many ofthese organizations (the Industrial Areas Foundation [IAF], PaciÞc Institute for Community OrganizationNational Network, Direct Action and Research Training, Organizing and Leadership Training Center, andGamaliel are some), they all organize for power. Their ability to organize allows them to act as a kind ofmediating institution for the poor, working, and middle classes and to negotiate effectively with those who havepolitical and Þnancial power.The following description of the IAF, located on the organizationÕs website(http://www.industrialareasfoundation.org/ (http://www.industrialareasfoundation.org/) ), provides an insightinto the efforts of these types of organizations:The IAF is non-ideological and strictly non-partisan, but proudly, publicly, and persistently political. TheIAF builds a political base within societyÕs rich and complex third sectorÑthe sector of voluntaryinstitutions that includes religious congregations, labor locals, homeowner groups, recovery groups,parents associations, settlement houses, immigrant societies, schools, seminaries, orders of men andwomen religious, and others. And then the leaders use that base to compete at times, to confront at times,and to cooperate at times with leaders in the public and private sectors. (para. 1)South Bronx Churches (SBC), an IAF afÞliate composed of 8 Catholic and 17 Protestant churches, also providea good example of the power of organized people. During the 1970s and early 1980s, the South Bronxcommunity in New York City was burning. Largely abandoned by government and business leaders, drugswere everywhere, shootings were commonplace, and arson was incessant. A turning point came when SBCmembers began to talk to one another about their fears, frustrations, and hopes concerning their neighborhoods.They realized that alone, none of them could do much, but together they had the power to improve theircommunity. Part of their multifaceted plan to revitalize the area was the ÒNehemiah HomesÓ project, thecreation of 1,000 houses for poor, working-class residents.6(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_49#note6) SBCÕs effort to save the South Bronx was a longstruggle that included public confrontations with powerful mayors of New York City (David Dinkins, Ed Koch,and Rudolph Giuliani) and huge efforts to raise money from business leaders. In the end, the SBC won. Theorganization succeeded in raising millions of dollars and convincing the city of New York to donate land for theproject. Today, 1,000 low-income, working New Yorkers own their homes where there were once just burned-out and decrepit buildings.More important, this accomplishment inspired those who participated in the effort, and the many more who

beneÞted from it, to become more active citizens. Felix Santiago, a key SBC member in the Nehemiah Homesproject, described what the experience did for him.We own the community now! When we went around with the police in the van [identifying drug-dealinghotspots in the 1980s], we were kind of afraid. We thought that maybe the drug dealers were going to seeus. But we were not afraid, together.Everywhere we go, from New York to Albany, from Albany back to Washington, we would carry oursignatures with us and we would put them on the table and say, ÒThese 100,000 people agree with ouragenda for change.Ó That made a big difference in our lives. We began to own more of the community.ItÕs something you learn with South Bronx Churches. You donÕt fear anybody. You can stand in front ofthe President of the United States and you can talk to him like we are here. You have power. In 1986, Iwould have been afraid to sit down here and talk to you. I would say, no way, no way, you donÕt want totalk to me. But when you get picked to be a leader and own what you got, you have the right to representthe community. (Korgen, 2007, p. 120)Felix Santiago does not just have a new home and a revitalized neighborhood; he has become an empowered,knowledgeable, and effective citizen. This kind of transformation is happening all over the United States.As of 2014, the IAF has organizations in more than 65 cities across every region of the United States, Canada,England, Germany, and Australia. They have helped pass living-wage bills (e.g., in Texas, Arizona, and NewYork City), funded thousands of new homes for low-income workers (in New York City, Philadelphia,Baltimore, and Washington, D.C.), established the successful Alliance School System (in areas throughout theWest and Southwest), and convinced lawmakers to enact legislation to carry out large-scale blight removal andurban revitalization (New York City).7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_49#note7) As notedabove, the IAF is just one of the many community-based groups working to give power to organized people.The National Employment Law Project (NELP) provides another example of a successful organizing effort.NELP has effectively brought together existing organizations throughout the United States to create fairerminimum-wage laws with their ÒRaise the Minimum WageÓ campaign. As of April 2014, 24 states had raisedtheir state minimum-wage levels above that of the federal $7.25 minimum, and several more were expected todo so soon. Two states (Connecticut and Maryland) have passed legislation to raise their rate to $10.10, assuggested by President Obama, and others have similar legislation pending. NELP helped establish a broad-based movement to harness the will of 69% of the U.S. public and a broad coalition community organizinggroups in favor of raising the minimum wage and has effectively pushed for such legislation in states and manycities across the nation (Bloomberg, 2014).ObamaÕs experience as a community organizer in Chicago no doubt helped him during his campaigns for thepresidency. He focused on building grassroots support, with advocates working in their local communities andencouraging neighbors to favor Obama and to make a plan to vote. The community-based Obama campaignorganizations built during the 2008 election were strengthened for the 2012 campaign, particularly in swingstates, and they played an important role in the presidentÕs reelection (Ball, 2012).ObamaÕs ability to organize and mobilize a largely ignored group of citizens deemed notoriously unreliable inelectionsÑyoung people!Ñhelped bring about his victory in the Iowa Democratic Caucus during the primaryelection in 2008. The participation of voters under the age of 25 in that stateÕs 2008 caucus was 135% morethan that in the 2004 electionÑand they responded enthusiastically to Senator ObamaÕs calls for a Òpolitics ofhope and change.Ó Young Iowa voters preferred Obama 4:1 over his competitors and gave him 20,000 of theirvotes. He beat Senator John Edwards by just 17,000 votes and gained the momentum needed for his later

victories (Drehle, 2008). In 2012, the youth vote was as strong as it was in 2008 and proved decisive forPresident ObamaÕs reelection (NonproÞt VOTE, 2012).Sociologist in Action: Frances Fox PivenFrances Fox Piven is a sociologist who never ceases to use her sociological research to inßuence society.When awarded the 2003 American Sociological AssociationÕs Award for the Public Understanding ofSociology, the Distinguished Professor of Political Science and Sociology at the Graduate School andUniversity Center of the City University of New York was described as Òa scholar who is equally at homein the university setting and the world of politicsÓ (ÒASA Award Recipients Honored in Atlanta,Ó 2003,para. 25). The author or coauthor of renowned sociological texts on the disenfranchisement and politicalpower of poor Americans (e.g., Regulating the Poor, 1972/1993; Poor PeopleÕs Movements, 1977; TheNew Class War, 1982/1985; Why Americans DonÕt Vote, 1988; Why Americans Still DonÕt Vote, 2000), sheputs her knowledge into action in the political arena. For example, in the 1960s, she used her research toexpand welfare beneÞts. Her efforts to enfranchise the poor were instrumental in establishing the NationalVoter Registration Act of 1993 (popularly known as the Motor Voter Act).8(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_49#note8) She has fought an unrelenting battle againstthe Òwelfare reformÓ initiated in 1996 and has been a consistent proponent of the politics of disruptionand mass protest.In one article, Piven (2005) describes her advice for democratic reform movements today in the followingway:Yes, we should work on our agenda of democratic reforms, including a national right to vote, anational voter registration system, the implementation of the National Voter Registration Act,Election Day a holiday, nonpartisan election ofÞcials, and so on. But we have to do more. . . .  Thetime when mass protest is possible will come. We should be ready and receptive, obdurate and bold.The hip-hop voter registration campaign had a slogan, ÒVote or die.Ó They were on the right track.(para. 7)Piven is one of the boldest living sociologists. Importantly, she is a dedicated social scientist as well as anactivist. She conducts good social scientiÞc research that can be examined and critiqued objectively.Although not everyone, or even all sociologists, would agree with PivenÕs strategies for political action,many have been inspired by her efforts to make our society a democracy in which people of all classes arerepresented equally.Sociologist in Action: Adrian Chevraux-FitzhughDid you know that corporations have the legal right, under the First Amendment, as interpreted by theSupreme CourtÕs decision in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010), to initiate andparticipate in political campaigns? Adrian Chevraux-Fitzhugh used the sociological tools he gained as a

sociology masterÕs student at Humboldt State University to examine peopleÕs knowledge about ÒcorporatepersonhoodÓ and their attitudes toward corporate involvement in political elections. He designed acountywide telephone survey for Democracy Unlimited of Humboldt County (DUHC, 2005), whichrevealed thatonly 35% of respondents were familiar with the concept of Òcorporate personhood,Ó which is thelegal doctrine that allows corporations to claim the same constitutional rights of humanbeings. . . . [Moreover], a signiÞcant majority opposes allowing corporations to participate in localelections. (para. 4)These results were utilized by DUHC in its ongoing efforts to educate citizens about the relationshipbetween corporations and democracy in the United States. DUHC helped establish the organization Moveto Amend, a coalition aiming to amend the Constitution to abolish corporate personhood(https://movetoamend.org (https://movetoamend.org) ). If youÕd like to Þnd out more about corporatepersonhood and determine whether you think it makes sense in a democracy, please go towww.pbs.org/now/politics/corprights.html (http://www.pbs.org/now/politics/corprights.html) .EXERCISE 7.1PressuresFacing the U.S.and WorldEconomiesTodayGo to The New York TimesÕ ÒEconomic Crisis and Market UpheavalsÓ athttp://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/c/credit_crisis/index.xlink.html?scp=1-spot&sq=credit%20crisis&st=cse(http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/c/credit_crisis/index.xlink.html?scp=1-spot&sq=credit%20crisis&st=cse) .Read three of the articles under ÒLatest Developments,Ó and relate their contents to the information in thischapter. Be sure to describe how the information from the articles helped you better understand theeconomic pressures on the world and U.S. economies today.EXERCISE 7.2How UnequalIs WealthDistribution inthe UnitedStatesÑandWhy?

Look at the video on wealth inequality at http://mashable.com/2013/03/02/wealth-inequality/(http://mashable.com/2013/03/02/wealth-inequality/) .Now, write a one- to two-page essay that (a) describes your reaction to the video and (b) explains theinformation in it, using information from this chapter (and other parts of the book, if you like).EXERCISE 7.3Social Classand YouAt this point in the chapter, you are probably thinking about your own social class and how you became amember of it. Think about how the institutions of family, education, and occupation are related to oneanother, and answer the following questions:1.   What is the highest level of education completed by each of your parents?2.   Were you raised by two parents? If not, who raised you?3.   When you were growing up, what was the occupation of the head(s) of your household?4.   Have you been in different social classes at different times in your life? If so, why? If not, whynot?5.   How do you think your answers to Questions 1 to 3 inßuenced your present social class?EXERCISE 7.4Soup Kitchensand Hunger inAmericaVolunteer to serve a meal at an area soup kitchen. Your Campus Activities OfÞce should be able to helpyou and even connect you with a group on campus that regularly volunteers at one.1.   Set up a time when the manager can give you some background on why the guests come to thesoup kitchen. (In particular, ask what makes them need the services the soup kitchen offers.)2.   When you are there, be sure to pay attention to the people eating at the soup kitchen (while stilltaking time to interact with them, to serve them, and to enjoy your volunteer experience), and notethe following: (a) Are they mostly families or individuals? (b) What is their racial and ethnicmakeup? (c) What is the age range of those who have come to eat there? (d) Do most of themseem hopeful? Resigned? Angry? Happy? Depressed? (e) How do they react to your being there,and what are the ways they interact with you?3.   Next, write a two- to three-page paper that describes (a) the services the soup kitchen offers, (b)the demographics and attitudes of the people eating at the soup kitchen (based on the data youhave gathered in Step 2), (c) why the people who eat there need to do so, (d) whether you couldever see yourself needing the services of a soup kitchen (and why or why not), and (e) how your

experience at the soup kitchen made you feel.Extra credit: Go to the website of Feeding America at http://feedingamerica.org(http://feedingamerica.org) , click on ÒFaces of Hunger,Ó and then read the Hunger Fact Sheets underÒHunger 101.Ó Incorporate the information from these fact sheets into the paper you just wrote.EXERCISE 7.5America: WhoVotes?1.   Click on the latest edition of ÒAmerica Goes to the PollsÓ at http://www.nonproÞtvote.org/voter-turnout.html (http://www.nonproÞtvote.org/voter-turnout.html) .2.   Compare voting rates by race, income, and educational attainment.3.   Based on the information in this chapter, why do you think the respective groups are more or lesslikely to vote than other Americans? What does this tell you about the connections (at least thosethat are perceived) between wealth and power?4.   What steps do you think should be taken toward engaging nonvoting Americans enough so that theywill register and vote?EXERCISE 7.6The Inßuenceof Money onState PoliticsItÕs almost impossible not to be aware of the inßuence of money on presidential politics. However, moneyinßuences politics at the state level as well. Go to http://www.followthemoney.org(http://www.followthemoney.org) , and submit your address. After looking through the Þndings for yourarea, answer the following questions:1.   What are three things you learned about the interaction between politics and money in your areafrom this website?2.   Were you surprised by any of your Þndings? Why or why not?3.   How have your Þndings inßuenced your opinion about how political campaigns should beÞnanced? Why?4.   How can you use the information you found to inßuence campaign Þnance laws?EXERCISE 7.7CommunityOrganizing

Find out what community-based organizing associations are operating in your area. You can do this bycontacting your campus Community Center and asking for referrals to local community organizinggroups or by checking out the websites of national organizations (IAF, Public Citizen, AFL-CIO, etc.)and Þnding the respective afÞliates in your state.Attend a meeting of a local community organization, and write a three-page paper that discusses (a) theissues on which the organization is currently focusing, (b) how it decided on those issues, and (c) theorganizationÕs strategy as it works on those issues. Discuss how these three items relate to (a) thesociological eye and (b) the sociological imagination and what suggestions you can make that might helpthe organization to be even more successful and powerful in accomplishing its mission. Finally, include asection analyzing how your university (or students from your university) could support the work of theorganization.EXERCISE 7.8Fair Trade onYour Campus1.   Watch http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhQJrz-aDfI&feature=related(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhQJrz-aDfI&feature=related) ; then, go tohttp://www.fairtradetownsusa.org (http://www.fairtradetownsusa.org) , and Þnd two other sourceson your own that describe the Fair Trade movement.2.   Write a two-page paper in which you use the sources above to describe the Fair Trade movementtoday, and describe why your campus should or should not be a part of it (you can do this even ifyour campus is a Fair Trade Campus).3.   In addition, include a one-page strategy plan for working with your school cafeteria to provide fairtrade coffee and other fair trade alternatives for students (or to expand these offerings if some arealready available on your campus).EXERCISE 7.9Voting RightsGo to ÒVoting Rights (Registration and Requirements)Ó athttp://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/v/voter_registration_and_requirements/index.xlink.html(http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/v/voter_registration_and_requirements/index.xlink.html).Read three to Þve of the articles that focus on the efforts to promote either voter ID laws or the VotingRights Act, and then, in two to three pages,1.   summarize the information in the articles and2.   explain whether or not you support (a) voter ID laws or (b) the Supreme Court decision tooverturn key portions of the Voting Rights Act.

Be sure to back up your arguments with hard evidence (and cite your sources).EXERCISE 7.10Power and theControl ofSeedsToday, three corporations control more than half of all the commercial seed sold throughout the world(Center for Food Safety, 2013). Learn about how this trend relates to power elite theories on class conßictby completing the following exercises.Watch ÒSeeds of FreedomÓ at http://topdocumentaryÞlms.com/seeds-of-freedom(http://topdocumentaryÞlms.com/seeds-of-freedom) , and then watch the brief video at the Navdanya websiteat http://www.navdanya.org (http://www.navdanya.org) .Now read ÒSeeds and Genetic DiversityÓ at http://www.etcgroup.org/issues/seeds-genetic-diversity(http://www.etcgroup.org/issues/seeds-genetic-diversity) , and look up the information on the Just Label Itwebsite at http://justlabelit.org (http://justlabelit.org) .In one to two pages, answer the following question:¥    Describe how a power elite theorist like Charles Derber might explain the centralization offood production under the control of huge companies like Monsanto.DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1.   Before reading this chapter, did you know that corporations have the legal right to initiate and participatein political campaigns? Why or why not? How do you think this right, upheld by the Supreme Courtdecision in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010), affects elections and governance in theUnited States?2.   Why do you think so many people who are not part of the 1% are opposed to raising taxes on thewealthiest members of society? How would Marx explain their thinking (recall his concept of ÒfalseconsciousnessÓ)? Do you agree with Marx? Why or why not?3.   Reread the discussion of DurkheimÕs ideas on external and internal inequality in Chapter 2(ch0002.xlink.html) of this book. How might external inequality in the United States today inßuence whomight be elected to public ofÞce?4.   Think of an issue youÕd like to see addressed, and conduct a power analysis of who controls the decisionsabout that issue and how you might inßuence them. For example, say you want your school to serve fairtrade coffee (if it does not already). Who decides what coffee the school purchases to sell on campus?How might you convince him or her to switch to fair trade coffee?5.   Have you ever worked (or are you now working) at a relatively low-wage hourly job? Why or why not?6.   What is your immediate reaction when you think about the fact that one in four households with children

reports an inability to buy enough food? Why? How can more people become informed about this socialproblem and take action to alleviate it?7.   Do you think unions are needed for low-wage workers? Why or why not?8.   What do you think your life would be like if you worked at a low-wage hourly job for the rest of your life?How would it affect whom you may marry, what kind of family you will have, what kind of home you willlive in, what you will do for entertainment, and so forth?9.   How, if at all, do you think the college degree you are planning to get will affect your social class? Why?10.   How did your social class inßuence your decision to (a) attend college and (b) attend the particularcollege in which you are enrolled?11.   Why might it make good economic sense for corporations to Ògo greenÓ? If you were a CEO of a majorcorporation, what might prompt you to invest funds in reducing your companyÕs ÒenvironmentalfootprintÓ? Do you think more companies will do so soon? If so, which ones (and where and why)?SUGGESTIONS FOR SPECIFIC ACTIONS1.   Find a local community organizing association in your area. (You can do this by looking for afÞliatedorganizations at the websites of the IAF, Public Citizen, AFL-CIO, and so forth.) Contact the leadorganizer, and set up a meeting with him or her. Find out what issues the organization is working on at thistime. Offer to use your skills as a college student to conduct some basic research for the group to help itlearn about the issues.2.   Go to the Rock the Vote website at http://www.rockthevote.com/home.php(http://www.rockthevote.com/home.php) , and follow the directions there on how to conduct a voterregistration drive on your campus.3.   Go to United for a Fair EconomyÕs website at http://www.faireconomy.org (http://www.faireconomy.org) ,and click on ÒTake Action.Ó Look through the list of actions they are working on, and participate in one, ororganize a teach-in at your home or school on a current issue related to social class, stratiÞcation, and theeconomic recession.4.   Read the story and watch the video ÒUganda Fights Stigma and Poverty to Take on Breast CancerÓ athttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/16/health/uganda-Þghts-stigma-and-poverty-to-take-on-breast-cancer.html?ref=international-home&_r=0(http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/16/health/uganda-Þghts-stigma-and-poverty-to-take-on-breast-cancer.html?ref=international-home&_r=0) . Then, go to the Uganda WomenÕs Cancer Support Organization athttp://uwocaso.org.ug (http://uwocaso.org.ug) and http://www.uicc.org/membership/uganda-womens-cancer-support-organization-uwocaso (http://www.uicc.org/membership/uganda-womens-cancer-support-organization-uwocaso) . Contact the organization, and offer to organize a fund-raiser/awarenessactivity to beneÞt the organization. This would be a great activity for a sociology club or other campusorganization.Please go to the bookÕs website at http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e (http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e)to Þnd further civic engagement opportunities, resources, peer-reviewed articles, and updated web linksrelated to this chapter.NOTES1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_45#rnote1) .   The lyrics of ÒMoney,

Money, MoneyÓ by ABBA were retrieved from http://www.metrolyrics.com/money-money-money-lyrics-abba.html (http://www.metrolyrics.com/money-money-money-lyrics-abba.html) .2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_47#rnote2) .   For instance, this doesnÕttake into account student loans, whether one has a spouse who is working outside the home, whether onehas children to support, and so forth.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_47#rnote3) .   White-collar workers areofÞce workers, including managers, professionals, and other educated and salaried workers. Blue-collarwork refers to manual unskilled or semiskilled labor, such as that carried out by mechanics, plumbers, andfactory workers. Pink-collar work is unskilled or semiskilled work traditionally carried out by women,such as work done by waitresses, clerks, secretaries, and ßorists.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_47#rnote4) .   In general, skilled laborersearn higher wages than unskilled blue-collar workers. Some skilled blue-collar workers even earn highersalaries than some white-collar workers. For example, in 2004, the median salary of mental health workers(white collar) was $36,630, and the median salary for electricians (blue collar) was $45,200.5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_48#rnote5) .   Actually, we do not haveone uniÞed electoral system. Elections are handled at the county and state level, with rules for registeringvoters, designing ballots, the type of voting machine, and so forth determined by local ofÞcials rather thanby the federal government.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_49#rnote6) .   Anyone who knowsanything about the tremendous need for affordable housing in New York City (and across the nation) willparticularly appreciate this story.7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_49#rnote7) .   See the IAF website atwww.industrialareasfoundation.org/ (http://www.industrialareasfoundation.org/) .8 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_49#rnote8) .   This act was a compromisethat led to allowing those applying for a driverÕs license to register to vote. Poor people applying forgovernment aid programs were also supposed to be encouraged to register. Unfortunately, although many,many Americans register to vote while acquiring their driverÕs license, relatively few government ofÞcialshave followed through with the Motor Voter ActÕs requirement that they register poor people.REFERENCESASA Award recipients honored in Atlanta. (2003, September/October). Footnotes. Retrieved fromhttp://www.asanet.org/footnotes/septoct03/fn4.html (http://www.asanet.org/footnotes/septoct03/fn4.html)Ball, M. (2012, October 24). ObamaÕs edge: The ground game that could put him over the top. The Atlantic.Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2012/10/obamas-edge-the-ground-game-that-could-put-him-over-the-top/264031 (http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2012/10/obamas-edge-the-ground-game-that-could-put-him-over-the-top/264031)Bloomberg. (2014). U.S. issues. Retrieved from http://www.bloomberg.com/infographics/2014-03-12/national-poll.html#us-issues (http://www.bloomberg.com/infographics/2014-03-12/national-poll.html#us-issues)Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. (2006). Working poor and education in 2004. Retrievedfrom http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2006/jun/wk3/art03.htm(http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2006/jun/wk3/art03.htm)Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2014a, January 24). Union members summary. Retrieved fromhttp://www.bls.gov/news.release/union2.nr0.htm (http://www.bls.gov/news.release/union2.nr0.htm)Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2014b, January 22). Usual weekly earnings of wage and salarly workers fourth

quarter 2013. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/news.release/archives/wkyeng_01222014.pdf(http://www.bls.gov/news.release/archives/wkyeng_01222014.pdf)Center for Food Safety. (2013, February 13). Seed giants vs. U.S. farmers. Retrieved fromhttp://www.centerforfoodsafety.org/reports/1770/seed-giants-vs-us-farmers(http://www.centerforfoodsafety.org/reports/1770/seed-giants-vs-us-farmers)Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, 558 U.S. 310 (more) 130 S.Ct. 876 (2010).Democracy Unlimited of Humboldt County. (2005, March 30). Survey says: Yes to local democracy, no tocorporate campaign contributions. Retrieved from http://www.ufppc.org/us-a-world-news-mainmenu-35/2704-news-northern-california-county-survey-shows-only-35-have-heard-of-corporate-personhood.html (http://www.ufppc.org/us-a-world-news-mainmenu-35/2704-news-northern-california-county-survey-shows-only-35-have-heard-of-corporate-personhood.html)DeNavas-Walt, C., Proctor, B. D., & Smith, J. C. (2013, September). Income, poverty, and health insurancecoverage in 2012 (U.S. Census Bureau). Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/p60-245.pdf (http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/p60-245.pdf)Derber, C. (2000). Corporation nation: How corporations are taking over our livesÑand what we can do aboutit. New York, NY: St. MartinÕs GrifÞn.Derber, C. (2003). People before proÞt: The new globalization in an age of terror, big money, and economiccrisis. New York, NY: Macmillan.Domhoff, G. W. (1983). Who rules America now? New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.Domhoff, G. W. (2005). Who rules America? Power, politics, and social change (5th ed.). New York, NY:McGraw-Hill. (Original work published 1967)Drehle, D. Von. (2008, January 4). ObamaÕs youth vote triumph. Time. Retrieved fromhttp://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1700525,00.html(http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1700525,00.html)Eckholm, E. (2008). Working poor and young hit hard in downturn. The New York Times. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/09/us/09young.html?scp=1&sq=working%20poor%20and%20recession&st=cse (http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/09/us/09young.html?scp=1&sq=working%20poor%20and%20recession&st=cse)The Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission. (2011). The Þnancial crisis inquiry report. Retrieved fromhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-FCIC/pdf/GPO-FCIC.pdf (http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-FCIC/pdf/GPO-FCIC.pdf)Fry, R., & Taylor, P. (2013, April 23). A rise in wealth for the wealthy; declines for the lower 93% (PewResearch Center). Retrieved from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/04/23/a-rise-in-wealth-for-the-wealthydeclines-for-the-lower-93/ (http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/04/23/a-rise-in-wealth-for-the-wealthydeclines-for-the-lower-93/)Irwin, N. (2013, September 17). The typical American family makes less than it did in 1989. The WashingtonPost. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/09/17/the-typical-american-family-makes-less-than-it-did-in-1989/(http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/09/17/the-typical-american-family-makes-less-than-it-did-in-1989/)Korgen, J. (2007). My Lord and my God. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press.Mills, C. W. (1970). The power elite. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1956)Morgenson, G. (2008, October 22). Credit rating agency heads grilled by lawmakers. The New York Times.Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/23/business/economy/23rating.html?_r=1(http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/23/business/economy/23rating.html?_r=1)NonproÞt VOTE. (2012). America goes to the polls 2012: A report on voter turnout in the 2012 election.Retrieved from http://www.nonproÞtvote.org/documents/2013/03/america-goes-to-the-polls-2012.pdf(http://www.nonproÞtvote.org/documents/2013/03/america-goes-to-the-polls-2012.pdf)

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This book is dedicated to the memory of Aiden Tomkins Odell and to all the families working to Þnd a cure for spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). Youcan learn about SMA and how to help Þnd a cure by going to http://www.fsma.org/Home (http://www.fsma.org/Home) .To read AidenÕs story, go to http://www.fsma.org/FSMACommunity/Photos/memorialphotos/index.cfm?ID=2820&TYPE=1203(http://www.fsma.org/FSMACommunity/Photos/memorialphotos/index.cfm?ID=2820&TYPE=1203) , and click on ÒOdell, Aiden Tomkins.Ó

 

Copyright © 2018 by SAGE Publications, Inc.All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or byany information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.ISBN 978-1-5443-4348-8Pagination has been changed from the original book for this custom publication. Therefore, cross-references will not be accurate.FOR INFORMATION:SAGE Publications, Inc.2455 Teller RoadThousand Oaks, California 91320E-mail: [email protected] (mailto:[email protected])SAGE Publications Ltd.1 OliverÕs Yard55 City RoadLondon EC1Y 1SPUnited KingdomSAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd.B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial AreaMathura Road, New Delhi 110 044IndiaSAGE Publications Asia-PaciÞc Pte. Ltd.3 Church Street#10-04 Samsung HubSingapore 049483

SPrefaceA Note From the Authors to the Students Reading This Bookociology is the coolest academic discipline. Seriously, what other area of study is better at helping you Þgure out how society operates and how you can use thatknowledge to create social change? Both of us were drawn to sociology because we wanted to Þgure out how to Þght injustice and promote democracy moreeffectively. It has also guided us in everyday life tasks, such as Þguring out how to get policies passed on campus, deciding whom to vote for, and learning why itÕs vitalto earn a college degree in a service-based economy. This book is part of our efforts to get students hooked on sociology and, in the process, help them to becomeengaged and effective citizens who can strengthen our democratic society.This book is also part of a larger, national effort to Òeducate citizensÓ by encouraging students to participate in civic engagement exercises that connect the classroom tothe community. Organizations such as The Democracy Imperative, Campus Compact, and the American Democracy Project are establishing movements to make civicengagement a part of the college experience for all undergraduates. College leaders all across the country realize that as educators they are obligated to give students thetools they will require to be effective citizens as well as the skills they will need in the workforce. Leaders in all sectors of society understand that higher education,when connected to the larger society, beneÞts everyone, on and off campus.We believe, as leaders of the American Sociological Association have noted when promoting public sociology, that sociology is particularly suited to teaching studentswhat they need to know to become effective and full members of our society. As the prominent sociologist Randall Collins has pointed out, the two core commitments ofsociology are (a) to understand how society works and (b) to use that knowledge to make society better. We believe that helping students learn how to thinksociologically and use sociological tools is, in effect, enabling them to become better citizens. No doubt, the professors who assigned this book to you also share thisbelief. They will gladly tell you why they think sociology is an incredibly useful and practical academic discipline.We also know that sociology is fun to learn and to teach. ThatÕs why we created a book that we hope will be enjoyable to use for both students and teachers. Theexercises throughout the chapters allow students to connect the sociological knowledge that they are learning to their campus and the larger community. So as soon asyou develop your sociological eye, you will make use of it! Please note that you will need to make sure you follow the rules for research on human subjects and getapproval from the Institutional Review Board on your campus before carrying out some of these exercises. (Your professor will tell you how to do so.) This book willalso help you to connect your own life to the larger society, as you learn about the Òsociological imaginationÓ and the power it has to positively affect your community.The Sociologist in Action sections in each chapter will give you powerful examples of how sociology students and professional sociologists (both professors and appliedsociologists) use sociology in myriad ways in efforts to improve society. By the end of the book, you can create your own Sociologist in Action section, in which youÕllshow how you used sociological tools in efforts to inßuence society. If you want to see more examples of sociologists in action please check out our other books,Sociologists in Action: Sociology, Social Change, and Social Justice and Sociologists in Action on Inequalities: Race, Class, Gender, and Sexuality.We look forward to seeing your Sociologist in Action pieces and featuring many of them in future editions of this book and on the website for The Engaged Sociologist(http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e (http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e) ). In the meantime, we hope you enjoy the book and use the knowledge and skills you gain fromit to make yourself a more effective citizen, strengthen our democracy, and work for a more just and civil society. We think that you will discover what we discoveredwhen we began our journey as sociologistsÑthat sociology is a cool and powerful tool. And, of course, we hope that you have a lot of fun in the process!

D8What Does a ÒTypical AmericanÓ Look Like Today?Race and Ethnicityoes race matter? How you answer that question has a lot to do with your own experiences and your knowledge about society. Your answer also depends on yourunderstanding of how racial groups have been treated throughout the history of the United States. In this chapter, we will examine the relationships amongimmigration and race and ethnicity,1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_54#note1) the social construction of race, and the persistence of racism in theÒcolor-blindÓ era.

8.1 Immigration and Race/EthnicityEmblazoned on the Statue of Liberty is a poem by Emma Lazarus (1883/2009) representing the statue as the Òmother of exilesÓ as it proclaims Òworldwide welcomeÓ tothose spurned by other nations. The mother of exiles tells the other nations toGive me your tired, your poor,Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free,The wretched refuse of your teeming shore.Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me.Ironically, this poem was written a year after the enactment of the Þrst law to restrict immigration in the United States, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882.Whereas earlier immigrants came primarily from northern and Western Europe, the late 1800s saw southern and eastern Europeans seeking refuge from persecution oreconomic opportunity. On the West Coast of the United States, Chinese and Japanese immigrants also began to arrive, looking for jobs. Pseudoscience that ÒprovedÓ thatWestern Europeans were a race superior to eastern Europeans, southern Europeans, and all people of color spurred negative racial prejudice (irrational feelings about aracial group) and racial discrimination (actions for or against people based on their race) against the groups deemed to be inferior. This racism, coupled with periodiceconomic downturns that led to increased competition for work, resulted in restrictive, race-based immigration policies that remained in place until 1965.After the Chinese Exclusion Acts of 1882 and 1892, and the GentlemenÕs Agreement of 1907, which largely curtailed Japanese immigration, a further series of lawsprohibited or limited immigration of non-Western Europeans. These restrictions on immigration culminated in the National Origins Acts of 1921 and 1924, whichestablished quotas (by nation of origin) and allowed only a trickle of immigration to continue. The 1924 Immigration Act enacted 2% immigration quotas per nation,based on the 1890 U.S. Census.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_54#note2) So, for example, Italy could send only 2% of the number of Italian peopleresiding in the United States in 1890. A provision to the 1924 act limited immigration to those eligible for citizenship. Because only those of white and African Americandescent could become citizens, this, in effect, prohibited all further Asian immigration.These restrictions remained in effect until the Immigration Act of 1965 was passed at the height of the civil rights movement and amid worldwide pressure to overturnlegalized racial discrimination in the United States. It abolished national quotas (replacing them with quotas for the Eastern and Western Hemispheres) and did much toincrease immigration and alter the racial makeup of the United States. The foreign-born population rose from 4.7% in 1970 (Gibson & Lennon, 1999) to 13% in 2010(U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2012a). Among those U.S. residents in 2010 who had been born outside the United States, 53% were from Latin America and the Caribbean,28% from Asia, 12% from Europe, 4% from Africa, 2% from North America, and less than 1% from Oceania (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2012a).It is important to understand that people do not generally leave their homes and families unless they have very strong reasons to do so. Immigrants move to new nationsdue to a variety of ÒpushÓ and ÒpullÓ factors. Push factors can include lack of economic opportunity in their home countries, war, famine, genocide, political persecution,and so on. Pull factors from the receiving nation can include economic expansion and better opportunities for jobs, peace, and family or friends who have alreadyemigrated. If you look at the history of immigration to the United States, you can see the impact of these factors on immigration policies (relatively open when we are inpeaceful, economic boom times and much more restrictive when we are at war and/or in economic downturns).A change in push and pull factors has resulted in the recent downturn in immigration to the United States from Mexico (Cave, 2011). Anti-immigration measures haveincreased in the United States amid persistently high unemployment since the Great Recession of 2008 to 2009. Meanwhile, Mexico has become more prosperous, itspeople more educated, and its families smaller in size. The result is that the large ßow of immigration from Mexico to the United States has started to decline. In fact, in2012, the numbers of Mexicans moving back to Mexico from the United States were greater than those of Mexicans moving to the United States, and the largest numbersof new immigrants were Asian rather than Hispanic (Passel, Cohn, & Gonzalez-Barrera, 2012; Pew Research Center, 2012).The status of the various immigrant groups in the United States reßects the global status of their nations of origin and their levels of education. Some Southeast Asianimmigrants (such as war refugees from Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos) came to the United States with little money or education. Today, other vulnerable Asians (such asyoung women from poor areas) are brought over illegally to work as indentured servants in sweatshops in the Chinatowns of major cities. The vast majority of Asiansimmigrating to the United States today, however, are educated people with some money who immigrate legally to Þnd greater economic opportunity than exists in theirnation of origin. On the other hand, Latin American immigrants are better able to enter the United States in relatively large numbers without either education or moneydue to their closer proximity. One result of the disparity in education levels of the various entering immigrant groups is the difference in the positions they achieve in theU.S. workforce and in their subsequent socioeconomic status. For example, among foreign-born workers in 2012, 43.6% of Hispanics had less than a high schooldiploma and only 12.6% had a college degree. On the other hand, 58.1% of Asian foreign-born workers were college graduates. This relates to their income, withforeign-born Asian workers making almost double what Hispanic foreign workers make per week (Mosisa, 2013).

8.2 The Social Construction of RaceHow do people racially identify you? It depends on where you live, as well as what you look like and the racial identity of your ancestors. Race is a social construction,meaning that it is deÞned differently from society to society and sometimes, over time, even within the same society. For example, the same person could be seen as amember of one racial group in Brazil and another in the United States.In the United States, some groups have been placed in different racial categories over time. For example, in the 1930 U.S. Census, Mexican Americans were includedunder the category ÒMexican.Ó However, in 1940, they were placed under Òwhite,Ó Òunless they appeared to census interviewers to be ÔdeÞnitely Indian or of otherNonwhite racesÕ (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1943:3)Ó (Rodriguez, 2000, p. 84). Today, they are asked to choose a racial category listed on the census and indicate thatthey are ethnically Hispanic-Latino/Mexican. In many ways, Hispanics-Latinos are treated as a distinct racial group because of their appearance and language or accent(all of which vary and largely determine the extent to which they face racial discrimination; Rodriguez, 2000).Hispanics-Latinos are not the Þrst ethnic group to be racialized and seen as inferior, however. Many young Italian and Irish Americans may be surprised to learn thatmost Americans considered members of these ethnic groups to be Òless thanÓ white until decades after they arrived in the United States in large numbers.3(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_54#note3) Today, sociologists deÞne a race as a group of people perceived to be distinct on the basis of physicalappearance, not genetic makeup4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_54#note4) (Rosenfeld, 2007). Ethnicity refers to cultural rather than physicaldifferences. All this gets even more complicated when dealing with Hispanic-Latino Americans, who, as noted above, are a distinct ethnic umbrella group but can be ofany race.Today, as Table 8.1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_52#tab8.1) indicates, the racial and ethnic makeup of the United States is stillmostly white. However, the percentages of Hispanics-Latinos and Asian Americans are rapidly increasing. Table 8.1(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_52#tab8.1) indicates the racial demographics of the United States based on 2012 Census Þgures. AÒbiracial baby boomÓ over the three decades since the Supreme Court struck down laws against interracial marriage in 1967 has added to the diversity. Between 1970and 2010, the racial intermarriage rate (which includes Hispanics as a racial category) grew from less than 1% to 7% of all marriages (Lee & Edmonston, 2005; PewResearch Center, 2013a). By 2010, 8.4% of all marriages and 15.1% of new marriages were interracial (Pew Research Center, 2013a). In 2010, more than 25% of Asianand Hispanic American newlyweds married someone of a different race, while 17% of black and 8% of white newlyweds did so. More than one out of every threeAmericans (35%) has an immediate family member or a close relative now married to someone of a different race (Wang, 2012).Table 8.1    U.S. Racial Demographics (as of 2012)SOURCE: U.S. Bureau of the Census (2014).NOTE: Based on how people racially identify themselves (total percentages do not equal 100).Some sociologists who research racial issues maintain that the racial classiÞcation system in the United States is changing. George Yancey (2003) and others maintainthat Asians and Hispanics-Latinos will eventually Òbecome White.Ó Other scholars, such as Eduardo Bonilla-Silva (2009; Bonilla-Silva & Embrick, 2005), say that theUnited States is beginning to establish a three-tiered racial hierarchy with ÒWhites (ÔtraditionalÕ whites, new ÔwhiteÕ immigrants; and, in the near future, assimilatedLatinos, some multiracials [light-skinned ones], and individual members of other groups [some Asian Americans, etc.])Ó at the top (Bonilla-Silva & Embrick, 2005, p.33). Next will come a middle group composed of Òhonorary WhitesÓ (most light-skinned Latino Americans, ÒJapanese Americans, Korean Americans, Asian Indians,Chinese Americans, the bulk of multiracials . . . and most Middle Eastern AmericansÓÑBonilla-Silva & Embrick, 2005, p. 34). The bottom group, the ÒcollectiveBlack,Ó will consist of black Americans, dark-skinned Latino Americans, Vietnamese Americans, Cambodian Americans, Laotian Americans, Òreservation boundÓNative Americans, and Òmaybe Filipino Americans.Ó5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_54#note5) No matter what the future racial hierarchy will looklike, racial inequity continues to exist in the present-day United States.W. E. B. Du Bois (1903/1989) wrote that Òthe problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color-lineÓ (p. 35). Unfortunately, the Òcolor-lineÓ (though it isshifting) is still very much a problem today. In fact, some current scholars maintain that Òracism is an integral, permanent, and indestructible component of this societyÓ(Bell, 1992, p. ix).In an increasingly diverse society, race-centered theorists seek to understand how the racial hierarchy adjusts to changing racial and ethnic demographics. Sociologistswho use a race-centered theoretical perspective today look at society, as Du Bois did, through the prism of racial inequality. Moreover, they see race as Òan independentand irreducible social force in the United States, a distinct aspect of social organization and a unique lens onto the whole of social lifeÓ (Hartmann, 1999, p. 23). UnlikeMarx, they maintain that divisions in society are based on race rather than class.Race-centered theorists focus on how and why racial hierarchies are actively maintained by those who beneÞt from them. They point out the glaring gaps in wealth,income, education, incarceration rates, and so forth among white, black, Hispanic, and Native Americans as some of the many indications of the still high levels of racialinequality in the United States. Moreover, they examine the racial ideologies, identities, and other aspects of social cultures that help perpetuate racial divisions andinequality.

Critical race theorists, like Patricia Hill Collins, use a race-centered interdisciplinary perspective to both examine issues of racial inequality and advocate for racialjustice. Like many other sociologists today, critical race theorists are keenly aware of intersecting types of oppression. For example, a black woman must deal with bothgender and racial inequality at the same time. Collins (1990) uses the term intersectionality to describe the experience of facing multiple sources of oppression.Certainly, race remains a social construction with very real consequences. Civil rights laws and afÞrmative action programs abolished de jure (by law) discrimination andprovided some opportunities for well-educated minorities to rise in socioeconomic status. De facto (by practice) racial discrimination persists, however.Black and Hispanic Americans still lag behind most other racial groups of Americans in terms of income, wealth, education, and employment. According to the U.S.Bureau of the Census (DeNavas-Walt, Proctor, & Smith, 2013), the median household income in 2012 for Asian Americans was $68,636, and for white, non-HispanicAmericans it was $57,009, but it was just $33,321 for black and $39,005 for Hispanic Americans. Wealth, which requires time to accumulate, reveals even starkerdisparities between whites and black and Hispanic Americans. The average white American has 20 times the wealth of the average black American and 18 times that ofthe average Hispanic American (Kochhar, Fry, & Taylor, 2011). While 52.4% of Asian Americans and 30.3% of white Americans are college graduates, only 19.8% ofblack and 13.0% of Hispanic Americans have college degrees (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2012b). In March 2014, the unemployment rate was 5.4% for AsianAmericans, 5.8% for white Americans, 7.9% for Hispanic-Latino Americans, and 12.4% for black Americans (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014).Is this news to you? If you are white, it may well be. The research of many sociologists reveals that Òwhite people are more likely [than black people] to believe that thesocioeconomic status of black people is better than it actually is . . . [and that] the playing Þeld is level (Grant-Thomas, as quoted in Valbrun, 2013, para. 16). Thisignorance, reßecting a gap between what white Americans think is real and what the data show, is partially due to the way race has been depicted in the mass media sincethe mid-1990s.The media has a powerful effect on how whites perceive racial minorities, particularly black Americans, because media outlets are the only places where most whites seeand Òget to knowÓ people of color.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_54#note6) Relatively few whites (24%) live in racially integrated neighborhoods(Ellen, Horn, & OÕRegan, 2012). So many tend to formulate their opinions about the socioeconomic status of persons of color (and everything else about racialminorities) from what they see in the media or hear from other secondary sources.Unfortunately, the media sends a conßicting message. On the one hand, some rappers and sports Þgures glorify the lives of Ògangbangers,Ó connecting blackness withstreet life and violence (Bowser, 2012; Oliver, 2006). On the other hand, the media also sends messages that race-based disparities no longer exist. In magazines, movies,television, and so forth, U.S. society is often portrayed as if race no longer matters. Interracial couples and integrated friendship groups are depicted in advertisements foreverything from restaurants to sneakers; popular television shows such as GreyÕs Anatomy, Psych, and Scandal have interracial casts that never speak about race; andrarely do news programs or public ofÞcials devote time to exposing and analyzing the great racial disparities that continue to persist in the United States today.Therefore, few white Americans realize that they beneÞt from white privilege. The concept of white privilege refers to the fact that almost every aspect of life (e.g.,Þnding a mate, buying a car, securing a mortgage, shopping for clothes, attaining employment, driving) is measurably easier for white Americans than for Americans ofcolor. This privilege can be ÒinvisibleÓ to white Americans if they have never faced racial discrimination themselves and are disconnected from those who do experiencerace-based discrimination on a regular basis.7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_54#note7)

8.3 The Color-Blind IdeologyObamaÕs 2008 speech on race during the Democratic presidential primary will be long remembered because he addressed and contextualized the race-based resentmentsof both black and white Americans in a straightforward (and eloquent) manner. His doing so was unprecedented and downright remarkable for a public Þgure seeking thehighest political ofÞce in the United States. When Obama won the presidency a few short months later, many commentators declared that his election signaled that weare now in a ÒpostracialÓ era. However, that is, of course, not the case. His election did not change the fact that racial inequality still exists in the United States. Althoughthe election of an African American president certainly marks a moment of great progress, the points Obama made during his March 2008 speech on race were true inNovember 2008 and still ring true today.Many Americans today do not want to hear about the realities of racial inequality. Echoing the media portrayal of race described above, a popular view among manyAmericansÑparticularly white AmericansÑis that race no longer matters. A racial ideology that grew out of conservative arguments against afÞrmative action programsin the 1980s, the color-blind ideology is now the dominant racial ideology in the United States (Bonilla-Silva, 2009; Brunsma, 2006; Korgen & Brunsma, 2012).Promoters of the color-blind ideology maintain that we should all act as though we are Òcolor-blindÓ when it comes to race. Many even go so far as to say that peoplewho talk about and notice racial differences are actually causing racial friction that would otherwise not exist. However, as President Obama pointed out, this is far fromtrue. Racial tensions and racial inequalities have existed in the United States for centuries and continue to the present day. Trying to avoid noticing them will not alleviatethem.It is also important to recognize that peopleÕs racial experiences inßuence how they view issues of race. This was painfully apparent after George Zimmerman, aneighborhood watch coordinator in Sanford, Florida, was declared not guilty of shooting and killing Trayvon Martin, an unarmed black teenager walking back to hisfatherÕs condominium. Patrolling the area for the neighborhood watch organization he led, Zimmerman spotted Martin, made the (racially informed) assumption that hewas up to no good, followed him, got out of his car to pursue him on foot, became involved in a ÞstÞght with Martin, and then pulled out his gun and shot him during theÞght.The vast majority of black Americans were outraged when Zimmerman was found not guilty of second-degree murder and manslaughter, but many white Americanswere not. According to a Pew Research Center (2013b) poll taken shortly after the trial, 86% of black but just 30% of white respondents were dissatisÞed with the verdict(21% of whites and 9% of blacks declared that they ÒdidnÕt knowÓ if they were satisÞed or dissatisÞed).In a press conference a few days after the verdict, President Obama explained why the black reaction was understandable given their experience in the United States.I think itÕs important to recognize that the African-American community is looking at this issue through a set of experiences and a history that doesnÕt go away. . . .There are very few African-American men in this country who havenÕt had the experience of being followed when they were shopping in a department store.That includes me. . . .And I donÕt want to exaggerate this, but those sets of experiences inform how the African-American community interprets what happened one night in Florida.And itÕs inescapable for people to bring those experiences to bear. (Quote found in Resnick, 2013, paras. 3Ð6)As ObamaÕs remarks and our everyday experiences indicate, people notice the racial appearance of those around them almost instantly (Apfelbaum, 2012). However, theinßuence of the color-blind ideology has led most people to feel uncomfortable talking about race, particularly with members of another race (those most likely toprovide us with a different perspective). One of us found through her research (Korgen, 2002) that even blacks and whites who are close friends tend to avoid talkingabout racial issues. While all Americans are affected (at least somewhat) by the color-blind ideology (Bonilla-Silva, 2009), white Americans, who do not tend to beconfronted by racism in their day-to-day lives, are particularly susceptible to its inßuence.The negative repercussions of acting as if we do not notice race are many. For example, trying to ignore race in the workplace can result in less productive managementstyles and a lack of trust among coworkers (Apfelbaum, 2012). Not acknowledging the race of your friends can prevent you from understanding how race affects theirlives, their perceptions of themselves, and the society in which you all live. This avoidance is problematic for anyone interested in promoting racial justice. If we want toend racial discrimination, we Þrst have to acknowledge that it exists.Effective efforts to Þght racial discrimination can come only after we uncover and confront patterns of racial discrimination. Likewise, we must make the ÒinvisibleprivilegesÓ (Rothenberg, 2004) of whiteness visible. To do so, we need to notice and keep track of how different racial groups are treated. For example, if we did not doso, we would not know that in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and New York City, among equally qualiÞed white and black job applicants, whites were more than twice as likelyto be offered a second interview. Even criminal records did not erase the advantage white applicants had over black applicants. Whites with criminal records were just aslikely as, if not more likely than, black applicants without a criminal record to get a second interview (Pager, 2008).Nor would social scientists (and, in turn, the general public) be able to learn that New York City had a Òpattern, practice and policy of intentional discrimination againstblack applicantsÓ to the Þre department (Baker, 2010, para. 2). Nor would we know that black and Hispanic emergency room patients are less likely to receive medicineto reduce pain than white patients (Heins et al., 2006; OÕLeary, 2013; Terrell et al., 2010) or that Asian, Hispanic, and black customers were charged more than whites forauto insurance (Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, 2013).If we did not keep track of racial patterns, we, likewise, would be unaware of environmental racism. Robert D. Bullard, known as the ÒFather of Environmental Justice,Óhas conducted sociological research since the late 1970s to uncover and lead campaigns against environmental racism. His work has helped bring to public attention thefact that people of color suffer disproportionately from environmental hazards and that governmental responses to emergencies differ based on the race of the citizensaffected (Bullard, 2008). BullardÕs award-winning book, Dumping in Dixie (2000), remains essential reading for all those interested in learning about environmentalracism and working for environmental justice. A member of the National Environmental Justice Advisory Council, Bullard participated in drafting President ClintonÕsExecutive Order 12898, which ordered every federal agency to make environmental justice a part of its mission, and has been an indefatigable advocate forenvironmental justice. BullardÕs work and the studies mentioned above (and the myriad more that exist) illustrate conclusively that race does matter and that we cannotbe color-blind when it comes to creating and implementing policy in the United States.The color-blind perspective on race also runs counter to the discipline of sociology. It undermines two of the most powerful goals of sociology: (1) to observe howsociety really works and (2) to give voice to the marginalized and minority groups within it. It is our obligation as sociologists to expose the negative repercussions of thecolor-blind ideology and to support efforts to promote racial justice.

8.4 Racism Is a Global IssueRacism is not just an American problem. The concepts of race and ethnicity have been used to separate and distinguish groups of people from all over the globe.Wherever you go in the world, you will Þnd, to varying degrees, some racial and ethnic tension. Western Europe provides a good example of past and present racialtensions. Historically, the peoples of Western Europe have suffered many wars among their nations that were, at least in part, due to racism and ethnocentrism (the beliefthat oneÕs ethnic or racial group is superior to all others). In fact, the leaders of Nazi Germany deemed the Aryan race to be the ideal race and Jewish people to make up arace that must be eradicated. They succeeded in killing 6 million Jews in historyÕs largest genocide and made Western Europe a place where few Jewish people remain.Over the past 2 decades, Western Europe has become more racially and ethnically diverse due to the arrival of increasing numbers of Asian, Middle Eastern, and Africanimmigrants searching for work. With this diversity have come new types of racial and ethnic tension. When plenty of jobs exist and immigrants are needed to take theones that the citizens of those nations do not want, immigrants tend to be more welcome. However, when jobs become scarce and citizens feel that they must competewith others for them, immigrants can become easy targets. The different races and religions of many of the immigrants in European nations have helped spark angertoward, and sometimes violence against, nonwhite and non-Christian immigrants.Even prominent members of European society have faced the wrath of racists. For example, CŽcile Kyenge, the Italian minister for integration, the Þrst black minister inItaly, has faced a torrent of racist insults. One member of parliamentÑa deputy speaker for the Northern League party in ItalyÑsaid she had Òthe features of anorangutan,Ó a deputy mayor likened her to a prostitute, and bananas were thrown at her while she was giving a speech (Kington, 2013). In France, the justice minister, ablack woman, has faced an onslaught of racism, with crowds and far-right politicians comparing her to a monkey (Beardsley, 2013).Evidence of racism and ethnocentrism also abounds in soccer stadiums across Europe. Today, Òalmost every country in Europe has racist signs, chants and even violenceat soccer stadiums, particularly from rightist groups that single out blacks, Jews, Muslims or other ethnic groupsÓ (Vecsey, 2003, Section 8, p. 1). Indeed, racism has beendescribed as the ÒscourgeÓ of soccer stadiums in Europe (Bohlen, 2013; Pugmire, 2009). A 2012 BBC documentary included footage of fans in Ukraine and PolandÒgiving the Nazi salute, making monkey chants, and displaying anti-Semitic behaviorÓ and other fans viciously attacking students from Asia attending a match in aUkrainian soccer stadium (Longman, 2012). The following Sociologist in Action section describes one college studentÕs encounter with racism in Italy.Sociologist in Action: Anna MislehAnna Misleh is a student at St. JohnÕs University in Queens, New York, studying sociology with minors in social justice, Spanish, and theology. She is a leader in theOzanam Scholars social justice scholarship program at St. JohnÕs.In the spring of 2013, a group of students from St. JohnÕs University in Queens, New York, were involved in a Òstudy abroadÓ program in Rome, Italy, andperformed weekly service work in a Roma (gypsy) population to better understand an ethnic group that experienced discrimination. In the process we, as collegestudents, learned we could raise awareness of the discrimination of the Roma and its impact. We worked one-on-one with Roma children living in Monachina, asettlement camp of Roma that is not ofÞcially recognized, but is tolerated, by the Italian government. Through our work at the camp, interviews with Italiansknowledgeable about the Roma, and interacting closely with one of the families at Monachina, my peers and I were able to better understand the Roma lifestyle andthe discrimination they face in Rome, Italy.To deepen our understanding of the Roma population in Rome, we interviewed two Italian women involved in a doposcuola (after school) program at Monachina.These women had been visiting Monachina for several years and understood the culture at the camp and the views of Italians towards the Roma. We also read andresearched all we could about the Roma to supplement the information given to us by the women involved in the doposcuola program. The Roma who reside inRome, and other European cities, have come from dozens of different countries. Most have ßed political unrest in their home countries. The Roma at theMonachina camp, for example, migrated to Rome in the early 1990s when the country of Yugoslavia dissolved and ethnic wars broke out across the area.Italians were not pleased by the arrival of the Roma. Generally, Italians stereotype them as an inferior ethnic group that is lazy, dirty, uncooperative, and unwillingto assimilate into Italian culture. This has led to a self-fulÞlling prophecy. The discrimination the Roma face prevents them from obtaining reputable jobs, owningproperty, receiving a good education, and generally integrating into Italian society.Our response to this discrimination of the Roma, which we saw evidenced in the Monachina community, was to raise awareness. We invited students from severalU.S. universities to visit Monachina with us and meet the Roma. Through this experience, they gained a deeper understanding of the Roma and how they are anoppressed minority group in Italian society. They were able to see that the stereotype of all Roma being lazy pickpockets was far from the truth. We also took timeto discuss with them how this discrimination negatively impacts Italian society as well as all other European countries that host these Roma populations and seethem through the eyes of negative stereotypes. Being seen only as a societal nuisance hurts both the life chances of the Roma and their ability to fully contribute tothe societies in which they live.After experiencing the plight of the Roma population Þrsthand, my peers and I were able to use our sociological imagination to relate what we saw to the socialissue of racial and ethnic discrimination. Sociology has taught me that a well-functioning society has institutions that support and respect the rights and dignity ofall its members. Seeing the discrimination against the Roma at the Monachina camp in Rome, Italy, has brought this truth home to me in a very real way and mademe more committed than ever to teach others that racial and ethnic discrimination hurts everyone in a societyÑnot just those who are its direct victims.SOURCE: Courtesy of Anna Misleh.EXERCISE 8.1Immigration andDemographicsRead ÒBetter Lives for Mexicans Cuts Allure of Going NorthÓ at http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/07/06/world/americas/immigration.html(http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/07/06/world/americas/immigration.html) .

Then, write a two- to three-page essay that describes how social scientiÞc research can be used to inßuence our understanding of immigration from Mexico andimmigration policies in general.EXERCISE 8.2Africa and the Legacy ofColonialismAt the same time the civil rights movement was under way in the United States, a global movement for black rights was taking place. One of the results of thisglobal movement was the end of colonial rule in Africa. (All of Africa, except Liberia and Ethiopia, had been colonized by European nations.)1.   Go to the Library of CongressÕs Country Studies website at http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs (http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs) .2.   Select an African nation (other than Liberia or Ethiopia), and write a background paper that includes information about (a) when it was colonized, (b) whatnation colonized it, (c) what conditions were like under the rule of the colonizers, (d) when it became a free nation, (e) how its borders were established, (f)how the establishment of its borders affects the nation today, and (g) the overall legacy of colonialism in the nation today.Extra credit: Analyze the current social, political, and economic well-being of the country you have chosen. How has globalization helped or hindered the nationÕsgrowth and the overall quality of life of the citizens? You may want to look at the website http://www.hrw.org/en/africa (http://www.hrw.org/en/africa) orhttp://www.amnesty.org/en/human-rights/human-rights-by-country (http://www.amnesty.org/en/human-rights/human-rights-by-country) for more information andinsight.EXERCISE 8.3AfÞrmative Action,Diversity, andProductivity1.   In two or three paragraphs, describe your opinion about afÞrmative action programs and how your socialization process inßuenced your opinion.2.   After carrying out Step 1, read ÒIn ProfessorÕs Model, Diversity = ProductivityÓ at http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/08/science/08conv.html(http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/08/science/08conv.html) .3.   Describe the key points you learned from the article and how they inßuenced your understanding of and opinion about afÞrmative action programs.EXERCISE 8.4Survey on Race in theUnited StatesConduct a survey of the members of one of your classes. On the survey, ask respondents to respond to the following statements and questions:(Provide them with the following options for Statements 1 to 3, and ask them to circle one to indicate their level of agreement: Strongly Agree, Somewhat Agree,Not Sure, Somewhat Disagree, Strongly Disagree.)1.   The socioeconomic status of whites and people from other races in the United States is relatively equal.2.   Racism is often exaggerated by members of minority groups.3.   People of all races have relatively equal chances to become successful in the United States today.4.   What, if any, college courses have you taken that deal with racial and ethnic relations?5.   What is your race and ethnicity?Compare the answers of (a) respondents from different racial and ethnic groups and (b) those who have and those who have not taken any courses that deal withracial and ethnic relations. Analyze your results.EXERCISE 8.5Racism in SportsGo to ÒBeautiful Game Turned Ugly: Racism in EuropeÕs Soccer ArenasÓ at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W-iRLmaZf4A (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W-iRLmaZf4A) and ÒSol Campbell Warns Fans to Stay Away From Euro 2012Ó at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-18240143 (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-18240143) .Based on the information in the videos and what you have read in this chapter, answer the following questions:1.   Were you surprised by the information in the videos? Why or why not?2.   If you were the commissioner of FIFA (the international football [soccer] federation), what would you do to curb the racist behavior at the stadiums? Whatmakes you think your efforts would succeed (or not)?3.   How might addressing racial inequality in European nations be more or less difÞcult than addressing it in the United States?

EXERCISE 8.6Has Martin Luther KingJr.Õs Dream BeenRealized?1.   Go to the website http://www.holidays.net/mlk/speech.htm (http://www.holidays.net/mlk/speech.htm) .2.   Read and watch Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.Õs ÒI Have a DreamÓ speech.3.   List the points King makes about when he will be ÒsatisÞedÓ with the situation for black people in America.4.   Check off those goals that have now been achieved. Provide evidence for your decisions to check off or not check off each point. Some of these may bepartially achieved, whereas others may have been fully achieved or not at all.5.   Listen to ÒRacial ProÞlingÓ at http://www.npr.org/news/specials/americatransformed/essays/010925.robertfranklincommentary.html (http://www.npr.org/news/specials/americatransformed/essays/010925.robertfranklincommentary.html) and ÒThe Legacy of theÔLittle Rock NineÕÓ at http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14692397 (http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14692397) .6.   Based on all of the above, do you think Martin Luther King Jr. would be satisÞed with the status of racial and ethnic minorities today? Why or why not? Ifnot, how do you suggest that we move toward a fuller realization of his dream? What speciÞc policy recommendations would you make?EXERCISE 8.7White PrivilegePeggy McIntosh did much to bring white privilege to public recognition with her essay ÒWhite Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible KnapsackÓ (1989), in which shelisted some of the Òdaily effects of White privilegeÓ on her life.If you are white, come up with a list of approximately 10 privileges that you (personally) enjoy for being white. (Do not, for example, state that you would have aneasier time getting a mortgage unless you actually have a mortgage and you had an easy time getting it.) If you are a person of color, come up with a list ofapproximately 10 privileges that you think a white person receives for being white that you do not have.Compare your answers with those of other members of the class.1.   What are the most signiÞcant differences among the lists?2.   Who do you think had the most difÞcult time coming up with the 10 privileges? Who had the easiest time? Why?EXERCISE 8.8Your Family and Issuesof RaceWrite a one- to two-page paper that answers the following questions:1.   When you were growing up, what did you hear about racial issues from your family? (For example, were racial issues ever seriously discussed? If so, why andhow often was race a topic of serious discussion? Did your family tend to bring up race only when making jokes or insulting comments about members ofother races? Did they speak from a viewpoint of color-blindness and thus discourage any discussion of the real, pressing issues associated with race andracism?)2.   How do you think the racial makeup of your family inßuenced how race was discussed (or not discussed) in your family?3.   How do your answers to the Þrst two questions relate to what you have learned in this chapter? How does the information in this chapter help you, if at all, toreevaluate your views on race, immigration, and racism?EXERCISE 8.9ÒA More Perfect UnionÓGo to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pWe7wTVbLUU (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pWe7wTVbLUU) , and watch Barack Obama deliver his ÒA MorePerfect UnionÓ speech.Write a two- to three-page paper that describes (a) the major points Obama makes in the speech, (b) how they relate to what you learned in this chapter (makingsure to address how this speech challenges the color-blind ideology), and (c) your reaction to the speech. (If you heard the speech when it was Þrst given on March18, 2008, compare your reaction to it then and your reaction to it now, after reading this chapter.)EXERCISE 8.10The Negative Impact ofthe Color-Blind Ideology

Read ÒOpinion: The Risks of Ignoring Race in the WorkplaceÓ at http://www.cnn.com/2012/01/31/opinion/apfelbaum-colorblind/index.html(http://www.cnn.com/2012/01/31/opinion/apfelbaum-colorblind/index.html) . Then, write a two-page paper that incorporates information from the article and this chapterand answers the following questions:1.   How have most Americans been socialized to deal with racial differences since the color-blind ideology became the dominant racial ideology?2.   Why is it important to Òacknowledge the (racial) elephant in the roomÓ (a) at the workplace and (b) in the rest of society?3.   How have you been socialized to handle matters of race? Why? How has your own racial background inßuenced how you deal with racial issues?4.   What can you do to help overcome the impact of the color-blind ideology in (a) your own life, (b) your campus, and (c) the larger society?EXERCISE 8.11Environmental RacismEnvironmental racism refers to a type of environmental inequality that negatively affects people of color. An examination of environmental inequality in the UnitedStates reveals evidence of environmental racism. For example, Americans of color are more likely than white Americans to be exposed to a variety of pollutantsand poisons in their homes, neighborhoods, and workplaces.Read Ò11 Facts About Environmental RacismÓ at https://www.dosomething.org/tipsandtools/11-facts-about-environmental-racism(https://www.dosomething.org/tipsandtools/11-facts-about-environmental-racism) , ÒSilent Discrimination: Issues of Environmental JusticeÓ athttp://www.mindthesciencegap.org/2012/01/16/silent-discrimination-issues-of-environmental-justice (http://www.mindthesciencegap.org/2012/01/16/silent-discrimination-issues-of-environmental-justice) , and ÒPollution, Poverty, People of Color: The Factory on the HillÓ athttp://www.environmentalhealthnews.org/ehs/news/2012/pollution-poverty-and-people-of-color-richmond-day-1(http://www.environmentalhealthnews.org/ehs/news/2012/pollution-poverty-and-people-of-color-richmond-day-1) , and then answer the following questions in a two- tothree-page paper:1.   What is environmental racism? Had you heard much about it before? If not, why not? If so, what had you heard, and what have you learned from thesereadings?2.   Why are Americans of color more likely than white Americans to be exposed to pollutants?3.   How do you think your own racial and class background inßuence your reaction to the information in these articles?4.   How might you devise a plan to use the information in these articles and the rest of the chapter to mobilize students on your campus to organize againstenvironmental racism in your area?DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1.   Close your eyes, and picture an American citizen. What does the person you pictured look like? Why do you think you imagined the race and ethnicity of the personin the way you did? (It might be interesting to ask people who are not in this course the same question after you have answered for yourself. If you ask them only toÒdescribeÓ the person, note whether they mention the race.)2.   Do you have a good friend who is of a different race from yourself? If so, how did you meet? Do you ever talk seriously about racial issues? Why or why not? Doyou think you understand the impact of race on your friend(s)? Why or why not? If you do not have a good friend of another race, why do you think that is?3.   How can sociology be used to (a) recognize, (b) publicize, and (c) combat racial discrimination? Be speciÞc, and clearly explain your answers.4.   Why do you think so many people want to believe that Òrace doesnÕt matter anymoreÓ? What do you think would happen if we no longer kept track of differentracial groups in our society? What might be the beneÞcial effects? What might be the negative consequences?5.   What do you think your parents would say if you told them you were going to marry someone of a different race? Why? Would it depend on what race? Why?6.   If you were in charge of U.S. immigration policy, how would you determine who should be allowed to enter the United States? What do you think the nation needsfrom immigrants? What types of immigrants do we want to ÒpullÓ here? Why? How should we deal with those people who feel ÒpushedÓ to come here? Why? Howclosely do your proposed policies relate to the message emblazoned on the Statue of Liberty?7.   Which groups of prospective students (other than racial groups) do you think have an easier time gaining admittance to and paying for a college education thanother groups of prospective students? Why do you think people have a harder time accepting race-based afÞrmative action programs than the preferential treatmentgiven to other, nonÐrace-based groups?8.   Do you think multiracial Americans should be given a separate ÒmultiracialÓ box to check on the U.S. Census? What do you think would be some outcomes of theestablishment of such a category?9.   What do you think Marx would say is the root cause of racial discrimination? Do you agree? Why or why not?10.   How might community-organizing groups make people of all races and ethnicities realize their common self-interests? Can you think of an issue that would unitestudents of all races and ethnicities at your school? What is it? What could you do to organize all racial groups on campus around that issue?SUGGESTIONS FOR SPECIFIC ACTIONS1.   Conduct interviews with top administrators at your school to Þnd out (a) what they think is the obligation of an institution of higher education regarding combatingracism in society and (b) what speciÞc things your school is doing to combat racism. If you think the school should be doing more, organize a group of like-mindedstudents, faculty, and staff to create more antiracism efforts on campus.2.   Go to the NAACP website at www.naacp.org/home/index.htm (http://www.naacp.org/home/index.htm) . Look over the volunteer opportunities listed there, and Þndone you are interested in pursuing. Find the number of your local NAACP chapter (by calling 877-NAACP-98), and offer your services.

Or join or volunteer with another race and/or ethnicity-based organization (e.g., MANA at http://www.hermana.org/homfrm.htm(http://www.hermana.org/homfrm.htm) , League of United Latin American Citizens at http://lulac.org (http://lulac.org) , CAPAL [Conference on Asian PaciÞcAmerican Leadership] at http://www.capal.org/ee/pages (http://www.capal.org/ee/pages) , or the American Indian Movement at http://www.aimovement.org(http://www.aimovement.org) ).Please go to this bookÕs website at http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e (http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e) to Þnd further civic engagement opportunities, resources,peer-reviewed articles, and updated web links related to this chapter.NOTES1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_50#rnote1) .   Although we have noted that ethnicity and race are two distinct concepts, we groupthem together in several places in this chapter. We typically do so when we are including Hispanics-Latinos in the discussion, because they are an ethnic group thattends to be viewedÑboth by its own members and by other AmericansÑas a distinct racial group.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_51#rnote2) .   The quotas were based on the U.S. population back in 1890, when the numbers ofdarker-skinned Europeans (e.g., Italians) were lower than they were in 1924.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_52#rnote3) .   In the middle decades of the 1800s, Irish Americans were commonly portrayed innewspaper and magazine cartoons as apes.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_52#rnote4) .   Thanks to the Human Genome Project, we now know that physical differences varymore within than among races (Jorde & Wooding, 2004).5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_52#rnote5) .   Bonilla-Silva and Embrick (2005) acknowledge that some individual members ofthese groups may fall outside the designated tier.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_52#rnote6) .   Black Americans are more isolated than either Hispanic or Asian Americans (seeCharles, 2003).7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_52#rnote7) .   For a great discussion of Òinvisible privileges,Ó see Paula RothenbergÕs (2004)Invisible Privilege: A Memoir About Race, Class, and Gender.REFERENCESApfelbaum, E. 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http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v36/n11s/full/ng1435.html (http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v36/n11s/full/ng1435.html)Kington, T. (2013, September 7). ItalyÕs Þrst black minister: I had bananas thrown at me but IÕm here to stay. The Guardian. Retrieved fromhttp://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/08/cecile-kyenge-quest-for-tolerance (http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/08/cecile-kyenge-quest-for-tolerance)Kochhar, R., Fry, R., & Taylor, P. (2011). Wealth gaps rise to record highs between whites, blacks, and Hispanic (Pew Research Center). Retrieved fromhttp://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2011/07/26/wealth-gaps-rise-to-record-highs-between-whites-blacks-hispanics/(http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2011/07/26/wealth-gaps-rise-to-record-highs-between-whites-blacks-hispanics/)Korgen, K. O. (2002). Crossing the racial divide: Close friendships between black and white Americans. Westport, CT: Praeger.Korgen, K. O., & Brunsma, D. (2012). Avoiding race or following the racial scripts? Obama and race in the recessionary part of the colorblind era. In A. Jolivette (Ed.),Obama and the biracial factor: The battle for a new American majority (pp. 191Ð204). Bristol, England: Policy Press.Lazarus, E. (2009). The new colossus (Academy of American Poets). Retrieved from http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/16111(http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/16111) . (Original work published 1883)Lee, S. M., & Edmonston, B. (2005, June). New marriages, new families: U.S. racial and Hispanic intermarriage. Population Bulletin, 60(2). Retrieved fromhttp://www.prb.org/pdf05/60.2NewMarriages.pdf (http://www.prb.org/pdf05/60.2NewMarriages.pdf)Longman, J. (2012, May 30). Racism and soccer are in play at a big event in east Europe. The New York Times. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/31/sports/soccer/concerns-of-racism-precede-european-soccer-championships.html?pagewanted=all(http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/31/sports/soccer/concerns-of-racism-precede-european-soccer-championships.html?pagewanted=all)McIntosh, P. (1989, July). White privilege: Unpacking the invisible knapsack. Retrieved from http://www.isr.umich.edu/home/diversity/resources/white-privilege.pdf(http://www.isr.umich.edu/home/diversity/resources/white-privilege.pdf)Mosisa, A. T. (2013, July). Foreign-born workers in the U.S. labor force (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics). Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/spotlight/2013/foreign-born/pdf/foreign-born.pdf (http://www.bls.gov/spotlight/2013/foreign-born/pdf/foreign-born.pdf)OÕLeary, L. (2013, September 13). How race can impact your health care. Marketplace Money. Retrieved from http://www.marketplace.org/topics/your-money/health-care/how-race-can-impact-your-health-care (http://www.marketplace.org/topics/your-money/health-care/how-race-can-impact-your-health-care)Oliver, W. (2006). ÒThe StreetsÓ: An alternative black male socialization institution. Journal of Black Studies, 36(6), 918Ð937.Pager, D. (2008, August 9). Study: Black man and white felonÑsame chances for hire (CNN.com (http://CNN.com) ). Retrieved fromhttp://ac360.blogs.cnn.com/2008/08/09/study-black-man-and-white-felon-same-chances-for-hire (http://ac360.blogs.cnn.com/2008/08/09/study-black-man-and-white-felon-same-chances-for-hire)Passel, J., Cohn, D., & Gonzalez-Barrera, A. (2012, June 1). Net migration from Mexico falls to zeroÑand perhaps less (Pew Hispanic Center). Retrieved fromhttp://www.pewhispanic.org/2012/04/23/net-migration-from-mexico-falls-to-zero-and-perhaps-less (http://www.pewhispanic.org/2012/04/23/net-migration-from-mexico-falls-to-zero-and-perhaps-less)Pew Research Center. (2012, June 19). The rise of Asian Americans. Retrieved from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/Þles/2012/06/SDT-The-Rise-of-Asian-Americans-Full-Report.pdf (http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/Þles/2012/06/SDT-The-Rise-of-Asian-Americans-Full-Report.pdf)Pew Research Center. (2013a, January). Intermarriage on the rise in the U.S. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/daily-number/intermarriage-on-the-rise-in-the-u-s/ (http://www.pewresearch.org/daily-number/intermarriage-on-the-rise-in-the-u-s/)Pew Research Center. (2013b, July 22). Big racial divide over the Zimmerman verdict. Retrieved from http://www.people-press.org/Þles/legacy-pdf/7-22-13%20Zimmerman%20Trial%20Release.pdf (http://www.people-press.org/Þles/legacy-pdf/7-22-13%20Zimmerman%20Trial%20Release.pdf)Pugmire, J. (2009, February 2). Little done to stop racism in European soccer. USA Today. Retrieved http://www.usatoday.com/sports/soccer/2009-02-07-1089560368_x.htm (http://www.usatoday.com/sports/soccer/2009-02-07-1089560368_x.htm)Resnick, B. (2013, July 22). President Obama was right: For black Americans, racial context of Travyon Martin is Òinescapable.Ó National Journal. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nationaljournal.com/whitehouse/president-obama-was-right-for-black-americans-racial-context-of-travyon-martin-is-inescapable-20130722(http://www.nationaljournal.com/whitehouse/president-obama-was-right-for-black-americans-racial-context-of-travyon-martin-is-inescapable-20130722)Rodriguez, C. E. (2000). Changing race: Latinos, the census, and the history of ethnicity in the United States. New York, NY: New York University Press.Rosenfeld, M. J. (2007). Age of independence: Interracial unions, same-sex unions, and the changing American family. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Rothenberg, P. (2004). Invisible privilege: A memoir about race, class, and gender. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.Terrell, K. M., Hui, S. L., Castelluccio, P., Kroenke, K., McGrath, R. B., & Miller, D. K. (2010, July). Analgesic prescribing for patients who are discharged from anemergency department. Pain Medicine, 11(7), 1072Ð1077.U.S. Bureau of the Census. (2012a, May 10). Census Bureau reports foreign-born households are larger, include more children and grandparents. Retrieved fromhttp://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/foreignborn_population/cb12-79.html(http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/foreignborn_population/cb12-79.html)U.S. Bureau of the Census. (2012b). Table 229: Educational attainment by race and Hispanic origin 1970 to 2010. In Statistical abstract of the United States: 2012.Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0229.pdf (http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0229.pdf)U.S. Bureau of the Census (2014, March 27). Quickfacts. Retrieved from http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/00000.html(http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/00000.html)Valbrun, M. (2013, August 19). Widespread bias continues in America despite claims of post-racial society. AmericaÕs Wire (Maynard Center on Structural Inequity).Retrieved from http://americaswire.org/drupal7/?q=content/widespread-bias-continues-america-despite-claims-post-racial-society(http://americaswire.org/drupal7/?q=content/widespread-bias-continues-america-despite-claims-post-racial-society)Vecsey, G. (2003, February 2). SOCCER: England battles the racism infesting soccer. The New York Times, Section 8, p. 1. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/02/sports/soccer-england-battles-the-racism-infesting-soccer.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm(http://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/02/sports/soccer-england-battles-the-racism-infesting-soccer.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm)Wang, W. (2012, February 16). The rise of intermarriage rates: Rates, characteristics vary by race and gender (Pew Research Center). Retrieved fromhttp://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2012/02/16/the-rise-of-intermarriage/2/#chapter-1-overview (http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2012/02/16/the-rise-of-intermarriage/2/#chapter-1-overview)Yancey, G. (2003). Who is white? Latinos, Asians, and the new black/nonblack divide. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.

I9Sex, Gender, and Powermagine you have just found out that you are going to be a parent. What are your hopes and dreams for your child? What games will you play with your little one?Can you picture yourself as the coach of one of your childÕs sports teams? Can you imagine you and your child baking cookies together? Now, think about some ofyour childÕs characteristics. Is your child going to be tough? Sensitive? A leader? A follower? More than likely, these questions are difÞcult for you to answer withoutÞrst picturing whether your child will be a boy or a girl.Although the physical characteristics and genetic makeup of girls and boys play a major role in the adults they will become, so do the gender roles assigned to them. Allparents see their children through glasses tinted by gender socialization. Through gender socialization, we learn to consciously and subconsciously apply dissimilarsocial roles to boys and girls. The result is that we treat boys and girls differently, and they, in turn, learn to act in ÒmasculineÓ or ÒfeminineÓ ways. In this chapter, weexamine how gender is socially constructed, how gender construction relates to the distribution of power in society, the status of women as a minority group in theUnited States (minority or majority status is based on power not on percentage of population), and how we might address the inequality of power between men andwomen.

9.1 The Social Construction of GenderA personÕs sex is determined by the physical characteristics that distinguish males and females,1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_62#note1) whereasgender is determined by the social roles assigned to males and females in society. As such, gender is socially constructed. Sex differences remain constant (almostalways2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_62#note2) ), while gender differs over time and from society to society. For example, in the mid-1900s, therewere more male than female doctors in the United States, but women dominated the medical Þeld in the Soviet Union. Today, voting and driving a vehicle are bothperceived as inappropriate (and, in fact, illegal) behaviors for women in Saudi Arabia, whereas they seem natural and appropriate for women in much of the rest of theworld.Here in the United States, until recently, it was seen as inappropriate for girls to play ice hockey because it was thought to be too physical a game for them and wasconsidered unfeminine. However, over the past 15 years, as womenÕs roles and the idea of femininity have been reconstructed, the number of girls and women who haveregistered with USA Hockey has jumped from 10,000 in 1992Ð1993 to 65,500 in 2012 (Francisco, 2012).Although peopleÕs personalities, talents, and outlooks on life are based on a combination of genetic (nature) and social (nurture) factors, sociologists focus on the socialfactors. In the case of gender and sexuality, we study the social roles applied to men and women through gender socialization. While doing so, it is important toremember that gender socialization intersects with how people deal with race, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, and so forth. So when we discuss how gendersocialization affects men and women, also keep in mind that racism, ethnocentrism, ageism, and homophobia exist alongside socialized gender roles and sexism. Theseare the intersectionalities we discussed in the previous chapter, and unfortunately, many people face multiple forms of discrimination.Sometimes, gender socialization can have life-or-death consequences for babies. For example, in many nations, more boy than girl babies are carried to term and born. InSouth and East Asian nations like China, Vietnam, and India, but also in other areas of the world, such as the Caucasus and Southeast Europe, the sex ratio of births ismore than 110 males for every 100 females (UNFPA, 2012). Recent headlines in the United Kingdom reveal that Òsex-selectiveÓ abortions occur in highly developednations, as well (Watt & Newell, 2013). One societal consequence of this female infanticide is that there is now a shortage of women for men to marry in these nations.On an even deeper level, infanticide reveals that males are more valued than females.As males and females move from birth to childhood to adulthood, they learn that they are expected to conform to the gender roles society has assigned to them. Thisprocess involves learning what toys to play with, how to speak (what tone, how often, to whom, etc.), how to present oneself in public, what sports to play (if any), whatjobs or professions to consider, and so on. One of the authors of this book is the proud uncle of 16-year-old triplets (among a total of 13 nieces and nephews). Two of thetriplets are boys and one a girl. It has been telling for him to watch the various gender socialization messages his niece has received, mostly from her peers and othersocializing agents outside the family, and imagine how this might negatively affect her life chances and opportunities.Gender socialization affects how men and women view the world as well as each other. For example, the political issues people deem most important tend to vary bygender. There is much evidence that women today, as a group, have different political opinions from men. There has been a Ògender gapÓ in every U.S. presidentialelection since 1980. The gender gap refers to the percentage difference in menÕs and womenÕs choice for president. For example, in 2012, 55% of women but only 44%of men voted to reelect Barack Obama to the ofÞce of U.S. president (The Washington Post, 2012).

9.2 Gender Socialization and Sex RolesGender socialization also includes learning sex roles (how to act in dating situations and sexually). As they grow older, boys and girls learn different lessons about withwhom it is appropriate for them to act in a sexual manner, when it is permissible to have sex, and how they should have sexual relations. Although some societies aremore open than others, and many are becoming much more accepting of same-sex romantic relationships, the majority of people in almost all modern societies viewheterosexual behavior (sex between men and women) as more appropriate and socially desirable than homosexual or bisexual behavior. This, of course, has negativeramiÞcations for those who, despite gender socialization, are sexually attracted to people of the same sex or members of both sexes.As noted above, though, there are many indications that norms around sexual orientation are beginning to shift and that increasing numbers of people support same-sexromantic relationships. Television shows with gay characters, such as Modern Family and Glee, have brought gay people into the living rooms of millions of Americansand helped change many peopleÕs attitudes about gay men, women, and youth. The music industry has also begun to recognize and support more gay artists. One notablerecent example of these changes comes from the world of hip-hop. Frank Ocean, a well-known rhythm and blues and hip-hop artist, came out as gay in 2012 and wasimmediately supported by renowned Þgures in the Þeld such as Russell Simmons and Jay Z. Even Tyler, the Creator, who has penned many antigay lyrics, has publiclysupported Ocean, with whom he has collaborated in the group Odd Future (McKinley, 2012). In 2013, Macklemore hit the top of the charts with his song ÒSame Love,Ópainting gay marriage as a human rights issue and scolding those in the hip-hop community for their homophobia. Madonna joined him when he performed his song atthe Grammy Awards. Immediately after the song, Queen Latifah conducted a live marriage ceremony for thirty-three couples, including many same-sex couples. Otherexamples are two National Football League players, Brendon Ayanbadejo and Chris Kluwe, who have publicly proclaimed their support for gay marriage (Himmelsbach,2012); Michael Sam, a new pro football player, who has announced that he is gay; and Jason Collins, the Þrst openly gay player in the National Basketball Association(NBA). As an indication of the changing support for gay athletes, CollinsÕs NBA shirt has become one of the most in demand in the whole league, despite the fact that heis not one of the gameÕs superstars (Net Income, 2014).Legal support for same-sex marriage is also growing across many areas of the globe. Since The Netherlands recognized same-sex marriages in 2000, other nations suchas Belgium, Canada, Spain, South Africa, Norway, Sweden, Portugal, Iceland, Argentina, Denmark, Uruguay, New Zealand, France, Brazil, and Britain have alsoofÞcially accepted such marriages. On the ßip side, Uganda has cracked down legally on homosexuality, and those who are identiÞed as gay are often met with deepdiscrimination and violence.Many think it is just a matter of time before same-sex marriage becomes legal throughout the United States, as increasing numbers of people favor its legalization. Today,more Americans support (51%) than oppose (42%) the legalization of gay marriage, and the percentages of those who strongly support the legalization of gay marriageshas grown to equal the percentage of Americans who strongly oppose it. This is a rapid change from just a decade ago. In 2004, just 31% of the American populationsupported and 60% opposed gay marriage. American adults under 30 are those most likely to favor gay marriage, and they do so by a more than 2:1 ratio (65% in favor,with only 30% opposing). Even more AmericansÑ71% of those of all agesÑbelieve that the legalization of same-sex marriage is inevitable (Pew Research Center,2012; Pew Research Center for the People & the Press, 2013).In the United States, same-sex marriage is now legal in the states of New Jersey, Delaware, Minnesota, Massachusetts, Iowa, Vermont, New Hampshire, New York,Maine, Maryland, Washington, Rhode Island, and Connecticut and the District of Columbia (and likely even more states by the time you read these words). Also, thefederal government now recognizes gay marriages and awards married same-sex couples the federal beneÞts accorded all married people in the United States.The battle to end discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgendered (LGBT) people in the United States is far from over, however. The majority of states stilldo not protect gay workers from discrimination. As of May 2014, it was still legal in 29 states to Þre someone because of his or her sexual orientation (Confessore &Peters, 2014). Moreover, hate crimes continue to be committed against those perceived to be outside the heterosexual norm. In 2009, almost 9 out of 10 middle and highschool LGBT students faced harassment because of their sexual orientation (Kosciw, Greytak, Diaz, & Bartkiewicz, 2010). This has led to LGBT teens being much morelikely to attempt suicide than their heterosexual peers (Hatzenbuehler, 2011).

9.3 Gender RolesGender roles basically conÞne members of both sexes to certain types of behavior and limit their freedom to act otherwise without fear of social disapproval. Those whovary from their gender-based roles face negative sanctions. For example, husbands who choose to stay at home and take care of their children while their wives workoutside the home may still be looked upon as not ÒtrueÓ men. Several years ago, the neighbor of one of us was called a Ògirly-manÓ because he took time off from full-time employment to be at home with his young children while his wife worked.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_62#note3) However, his wife faced nosuch negative sanctions when she stayed home with their children for the preceding 3 years!Today, though, gender roles for mothers and fathers have started to shift. Due to the growing need for two incomes to support a family, there are fewer stay-at-homemothers. Among couples who decide that one parent should stay at home, it is no longer an automatic choice for the stay-at-home parent to be the mother. While in 1975,only 47.4% of mothers with children under 18 worked outside the home, 70.5% of such mothers did so in 2012 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011, 2013c). Most couplesdecide that if they can afford to keep one parent at home, it should be the parent who would make the least moneyÑand in four out of Þve households with preschoolchildren, the mother is the primary caregiver (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2011). In most states, even basic day care at a child care center costs more than tuition at apublic university. The burden can be overwhelming for parents from the lower to upper middle classes. For example, Òday care costs for middle-class New Yorkers caneasily equal $25,000 to $30,000 per child. In New York, child care is the single greatest expense among low-income families in the city, surpassing both food andhousingÓ (Quart, 2013). Some women decide that the cost is too much and drop out of the workforce to care for their child. Many of those who do so tend to have troublereentering the workforce and attaining a job with similar status and pay.Fathers who stay in the paid workforce also face the strain of dealing with changing gender roles. According to a 2011 study (National Study of the ChangingWorkforce), men now feel that they must be both providers and active parents and partners. Today, men believe that an ÒidealÓ man Òis not only a good employee,working long hours to be a successful breadwinner, but also an involved and nurturing husband/partner, father and sonÓ (Aumann, Galinsky, & Matos, 2011, p. 3). Just asworking mothers have faced the strain of trying to Òdo it all,Ó working fathers are now feeling the pressure to meet expectations from both their family and theiremployer (and their own perceptions of an ÒidealÓ man).

9.4 Gender Roles and PowerAll in all, though, despite the recent changes in gender roles that have accompanied womenÕs increased role in the economic sphere, the behaviors we assign tomasculine and feminine roles still provide men with more social, political, and economic power than women. In general, although the norms for gender roles areconstantly evolving, boys are still more often trained to be tough, competitive, and self-promoting,4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_62#note4) whereasgirls still tend to be socialized to be sensitive, cooperative, caring, and self-deprecating. These respective gender roles clearly give men an advantage in both private andpublic arenas (Commuri & Gentry, 2005; Slaughter, 2012).Even in societies where there is de jure (legal) equality for women, gender socialization can promote de facto (in fact) inequality between the sexes. For example, in theUnited States, there are more women than men. However, women have less power than men and are, therefore, considered to be a minority group by sociologists andothers who study power. Below, we outline some of the social, political, and economic inequalities between men and women in the United States. As you will see, thesedifferent aspects of power relations are interrelated, and they feed off one another.

9.5 Social InequalitiesThrough gender socialization, both sexes are more likely to view men rather than women as experts and in possession of the tools of legitimate power. The different waysmen and women communicate, with men more likely to interrupt and speak over others, inßuence the power dynamics between the sexes (Tannen, 2001; Wood, 2009).The fact that most people in leadership positions are men reinforces the perception that men have more leadership abilities and should be paid attention to more thanwomen (Ely, Ibarra, & Kolb, 2011). This pattern appears throughout society. The traditionally male-dominated Harvard Business School and Fortune 500 Companies (ofwhich only 21 have female CEOs) are two notable examples (Kantor, 2013). This attitude often manifests itself in everyday interactions when men and women enter apublic event, meeting, or place of business together. Men tend to be greeted and attended to Þrst.The tasks that men and women are socialized to do in their own households also beneÞt men over women. As the number of dual-income households has increased, inthe majority of households, women are still expected to come home from work and shoulder the majority of the burden of domestic chores, including cooking, cleaning,and especially child care. Arlie Hochschild (2003) has famously called this social phenomenon Òthe second shift.ÓToday, working women who are married spend less time on housework than women used to in earlier decades, when they tended not to work outside the home(University of Michigan Institute for Social Research, 2007). However, one out of two women but only one out of Þve men do household chores, such as laundry andcleaning, on a typical day. Many more men have started to cook or clean up after meals, but women are more likely to do these chores as well (42% of men comparedwith 68% of women; Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2013a). These Þgures make it clear that women still bear the brunt of the second shift.In addition to giving up more of their time for housework, women are also more likely than men to give up their own spending money for the good of the family. Menare more likely to spend money on themselves (Commuri & Gentry, 2005; Zeliker, 2011). These Þndings have made lenders and policymakers realize that familiesÑandwhole societiesÑtend to beneÞt more when women have control over the family Þnances (Zeliker, 2011). Internationally, this social fact is the main reason why mostmicrocredit and microÞnancing loans are granted to women, as they are much more likely to use the money responsibly for the advancement of their families.

9.6 Political InequalitiesAlthough the Þrst wave of the womenÕs movement led to the passage in 1920 of the Nineteenth Amendment, which gave women the right to vote, women are still farfrom attaining equal representation in politics. Today, more women vote than men. However, as of 2013, women number only 5 out of 50 state governors, and only 77out of 435 representatives and 20 out of 100 senators in the U.S. Congress (Pesta, 2012). Globally, only 17 out of 143 current heads of state or government are female(Sedghi, 2012).5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_62#note5)Women who run for political ofÞce (or any position of power) must, in some ways, resocialize themselves. They have to learn to be self-promoters rather than self-deprecators, to be tough as well as sensitive, and to speak up rather than defer to others. At the same time, they must trust that voters will be more impressed with theirleadership credentials than turned off by their stepping out of the traditional ÒfeminineÓ gender role. As anyone who followed the Democratic presidential primary race in2008 knows, this juggling act proved difÞcult for Hillary Clinton (as it would for any woman running for president). For example, while many Americans were thrilledto vote for a woman for president, others frowned on ClintonÕs stepping outside the gender norm. Many will long remember how she was taunted while campaigning bya man who screamed at her to Òiron my shirtÓ (Associated Press, 2008). When asked to explain his actions, the heckler said, ÒI just donÕt think a woman should bepresidentÓ (Joyner, 2008).While the United States has not yet elected a female president or even a female vice president, women have achieved greater political gains lower down the politicalladder. For example, in 2012, 23.7% of state legislators were women, representing, according to CAWP (2012), a quintuple increase since 1971. Although the gain in thepercentage of female state legislators has slowed in recent years, the increase in female representation that has occurred at the local and state levels is very importantbecause many ofÞcials in higher ofÞce start their political careers in these types of political positions. Still, women remain disproportionately underrepresented even atthe local level, considering that women currently constitute 51% of the total U.S. population.

9.7 Economic InequalitiesWomen have made tremendous progress in the economic sphere over the past Þve decades. The civil rights movement and the second wave of the womenÕs movementbrought about the passage of the Equal Pay Act in 1963 and the Civil Rights Act in 1964, Title IXÕs prohibition of sex discrimination in schools (and in funding forschool sports), acknowledgment of sexual harassment as a social issue, and the inclusion of women in afÞrmative action programs. These legislative acts, inßation, andthe decline in the number of jobs paying enough for one earner to support a family all contributed to women making up 47% of the workforce in 2011 (Bureau of LaborStatistics, 2012). However, in 2011, women held only 14.1% of executive ofÞcer positions and just 7.5% of top-earner positions at Fortune 500 companies (Soares et al.,2011).While there are fewer women than men on the top of the economic ladder, women make up a disproportionate percentage of those clinging to the bottom of the ladder.Women who are heads of households, and their children, are particularly likely to live in poverty. In 2010, an estimated 31.6% of female-headed households lived inpoverty, compared with 15.8% of male-headed households (DeNavas-Walt, Proctor, & Smith, 2011). Many children bear the brunt of this feminization of poverty. While11.6% of children residing in married-couple families are in poverty, four times that number (46.9%) of those living with just a female head of house (with no husbandpresent) are in poverty (DeNavas-Walt et al., 2011). Overall, more than one in Þve (21.5%) children lives in poverty.Although more and more women of all races and economic classes are giving birth outside marriage (40.1% in 2010), female heads of households are disproportionatelypoor women (and disproportionately poor women of color [Hamilton, Martin, & Ventura, 2011]). In 2011, just 33% of black and 60% of Hispanic children lived withboth parents, compared with 75% of white and 85% of Asian children (Child Trends, 2012).To put it bluntly, it is more difÞcult for poor womenÑparticularly poorwomen of colorÑto Þnd ÒmarriageableÓ partners (men who have a job, who are not in prison, etc.) than for middle-class and wealthy women (Edin & Kefalas, 2005). Asnoted in earlier chapters, the unemployment rates for black and Hispanic Americans are dramatically higher than for white Americans, and whereas 1 in 87 working-agewhite men are incarcerated, 1 in 36 Hispanic men and 1 in 12 black men are in jail or prison (Pew Charitable Trusts, 2010).Education also plays a role in who marries and the resulting inequalities. Twelve percent of mothers in their twenties with a college degree give birth outside marriage,compared with 59% of mothers with a high school degree or less (Child Trends, 2014). The divorce rate for more educated parents is also lower than for those with lesseducation (Heller, 2012). The result is a growing gap in income and other parenting resources between married parents and single parents. This gap, in turn, creates adisparity in life chances between the children of these different types of parents. This inequality tends to be passed down further and leads to a cycle of poverty, as thosewith less educated and single parents are more likely to leave school earlier and have their own children outside marriage (DeParle, 2012).The Wage GapDespite all the progress that the womenÕs movement has made, women today still make only 81 cents for every dollar made by men (averaging full-time work across alloccupations) (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2013b) and still face a Òglass ceilingÓ when trying to advance into higher levels of management, for a variety of reasonsincluding the following:¥    Gender socialization inßuences (a) what subjects girls study and are encouraged to study in school (e.g., girls are still heavily underrepresented among mathand science majors in college), (b) what career paths they are directed toward and choose, and (c) their ability to think of themselves, present themselves, andbe perceived by others as capable professionals and leaders.¥    Only women can become pregnant and give birth to children. If women want to have children, they must take at least some time off work to give birth,recover from childbirth, and care for their newborn. Women end up doing most of the child care and housework even when working outside the home (Bureauof Labor Statistics, 2013a; Hochschild, 2003). This affects their ability to spend extra hours at their paid job and advance in their career. Ironically, this factorfurther fuels the stereotype that women are less capable than men and less hardworking, when in fact they are juggling more and working longer hours thanmen (when housework and child care and professional work are combined).¥    Sex discrimination and sexual harassment still exist and work to hamper the economic progress of women, as the following examples show:    A 2012 Yale study revealed that both female and male scientists ranked identically qualiÞed candidates for a lab manager position differently based on theirgender. The male candidates were perceived as more competent and deserving of higher salaries than the female applicants (Moss-Racusin, Dovidio, Brescoll,Graham, & Handelsman, 2012).    New York City settled a gender bias lawsuit against the Emergency Medical Service of the New York City Fire Department for more than $1.25 milliondollars. The plaintiffs maintained that it was much harder for women than men to earn promotions above the rank of lieutenant (promotions to lieutenant werebased on Civil Service exam results) (Goldstein, 2013).    Bank of America paid $39 million dollars in a settlement decision for discriminating against women in its Merrill Lynch brokerage operation (McGeehan,2013).    The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission forced FedEx Freight to pay $115,000 for choosing an unqualiÞed man for a position over threequaliÞed women, Amtrak to pay $171,483 to compensate a female worker for wage discrimination and then retaliating against her for complaining, and theBig Vanilla Athletic Club to pay $161,000 for sexually harassing female employees and then Þring them when they complained (Equal EmploymentOpportunity Commission, 2009, 2011, 2012).Clearly, challenges still exist for women in the social, political, and economic spheres. However, progress toward equality has been made through effective, organizedefforts. Our culture and gender roles are continually changing and adjusting to the social and structural forces at work in our society. Legislation like the NineteenthAmendment, the Equal Pay Act of 1963, and the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited employment discrimination on the basis of sex (as well as race, color,religion, and national origin), did much to change the actions and, gradually, gender socialization of Americans. Sociological tools have been, and will continue to be,effective means for uncovering and addressing gender inequality in U.S. society and across the world. The Sociologist in Action section below is a good example of howsociology can be effectively used in this endeavor.Sociologist in Action: Melissa Sheridan Embser-HerbertDuring the summer of 2011, I had the opportunity to make my Þrst visit to Rwanda, explore the culture, plan a course bringing students to Rwanda, and learn, moredirectly than books allow, about the 1994 genocide. Yes, I saw the mountain gorillasÑup close and personalÑand I bought too many hand-woven baskets, but Ialso sawÑand smelledÑstacks of bones and piles of bloodied clothing at genocide memorials. In 2012, with a colleague and 12 students, I returned to Rwanda tostudy restorative justice and reconciliation in postgenocide Rwanda.

ItÕs one thing to watch a video or read a book about genocide. ItÕs another to visit the country where it happened and see the mass graves, the number of peoplemissing limbs, andÑas my colleague experiencedÑtalk with someone who says, ÒI killed seven people. IÕve made peace with six families. I hope to with familyseven.Ó While our central aim was to learn about restorative justice and reconciliation, we also considered other issues that impact postgenocide Rwandan society.One key issue is the role of women in Rwandan society.While we were in Rwanda, we visited the market in Musanze. In Rwanda, most women are employed in agriculture, with Òoff-farmÓ opportunities being quitelimited. Women are far less likely to have access to Þnancial services, including microcredit, often required for starting their own businesses. If the independentparticipation of women in the nonagricultural labor market is to increase, more support must be found for women who have the skills and initiative to becomeentrepreneurs. Via our interpreter, one student, Angela, started talking with one of the women at the market who sewed, wanting to know about her life. On theclass blog, Angela wrote, ÒMama Joyce went on to tell me that she makes 30,000 RWF (Rwandan francs), or about 50 USD [US dollars], per month, and from thatshe pays 20,000 RWF, or 33 USD, in rent for her sewing machine. . . . Her income supports the majority of her familyÕs basic needs and deÞnitely doesnÕt allow foranything extra. They net only 17 USD a month. I was astounded to learn that the cost to purchase her own machine would be about 70,000 RWF, or 115 USD.Cripes! I spend approximately that much on my cell phone bill each month.Ó Angela decided to make a personal donation so that Mama Joyce could purchase asewing machine. But she had also received $100 from her department in case she had the opportunity to conduct interviews while in Rwanda. Angela was told thatshould that not be possible, she could donate the money as she wished. She decided to give Mama Joyce that money for the purchase of a second sewing machine.The idea was that the women who sewed together might start a cooperative, a business that they would run together, sharing in its proÞts. But she didnÕt stop there.Upon her return to the United States, Angela started exploring how to establish her own nonproÞt to help other women in Musanze, Rwanda. Begin was begun.Still a ßedgling nonproÞt, Begin aims to raise funds to allow more women in Musanze to purchase their own sewing machines. Referring to the money that wouldno longer be spent renting machines, Angela writes, ÒThis is money that she [Mama Joyce] could be using to buy food and clothes for her children . . . or moneyshe could be using to reinvest in her community. . . . By building a park, for example. Or maybe a kindergarten.Ó Mama Joyce is the primary wage earner for herfamily. Her husband, having left military service, has been unable to Þnd permanent, full-time work. This shift in responsibility is not unique to Mama Joyce, or toRwanda. Women across the globe share these experiences. Angela recognized this need and then took steps to address it.My students and I used our sociological imaginations to recognize patterns of systemic inequality in the institutions of Rwanda, including the economy. Ourcommitment to using that knowledge to make a positive impact on society led some to take action. While these steps are relatively small, we know that there aremany other sociologists in actionÑsome reading this piece right nowÑtaking steps of their own. Together, we can change the world for the better.SOURCE: Courtesy of Melissa Sheridan Embser-Herbert.EXERCISE 9.1It Gets Better1.   Read at least one of the research reports at the Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network (n.d.) at http://www.glsen.org/cgi-bin/iowa/all/research/index.html (http://www.glsen.org/cgi-bin/iowa/all/research/index.html) .2.   Go to the It Gets Better Project website at http://www.youtube.com/user/itgetsbetterproject (http://www.youtube.com/user/itgetsbetterproject) , and watch atleast two of the It Gets Better videos. Then, go to http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TdkNn3Ei-Lg (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TdkNn3Ei-Lg) , andwatch Jonah MowryÕs ÒWhats Goin On.Ó3.   Write a two- to three-page reßection paper that describesa.   some of the Þndings from the research report(s),b.   how those Þndings relate to the videos you watched,c.   how your own sexual orientation (and related experiences) inßuence your reaction to the videos and report(s), andd.   what steps you can take to make society a safer place for gays and lesbians.EXERCISE 9.2Gender, Relationships,and Socialization1.   Make a list of the 10 characteristics you are most looking for in a boyfriend or girlfriend.2.   On a separate piece of paper, make a list of the 10 characteristics that you think a man or woman is most looking for in you.3.   Have your professor collect these and tally up the results, following the instructions we have provided on our website (http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e(http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e) ).4.   Analyze the results. What are men most looking for? What are women most looking for? What are the differences between these? What are the causes of thesedifferences? What are the social effects of these differencesÑthat is, how do they affect the gender roles and the social power of men and women?5.   For further analysis, explore the following: What did women think that potential partners were looking for in them? What did men think that potential partnerswere looking for in them? Compare these results with those found in the responses to Question 4.6.   Were women or men more accurate in guessing what their potential partners were looking for? Why? How does gender socialization help explain this?7.   How does gender socialization promote heterosexuality at the expense of other sexual orientations?EXERCISE 9.3Discrimination and You1.   Make a list of Þve occasions when you have been discriminated against in your life. At least three of these should be based on some biological fact that youcanÕt change about yourself (your race, height, sex, age, sexuality, hair color, body type, etc.). Try, if you can, to list multiple biological facts for which you

have been discriminated against.2.   Make a list of Þve occasions when you have been prejudiced against or discriminated against someone (or a group of people). Make sure that at least three ofthe Þve were based on biological facts that the person (or group of people) couldnÕt change, such as race, sex, sexuality, or physical appearance.3.   Write a two- to three-page essay that discusses (a) your own experiences of being discriminated against, including how it felt and how it made you act andreact; (b) why you were prejudiced or discriminated against others; and (c) how a person can face multiple points of discrimination.4.   Make sure to include at least one full paragraph addressing what you might be able to do, in your own life, to be less prejudiced and less likely to discriminateagainst other groups of people.EXERCISE 9.4Gender Differences inPersonal Ads1.   Write an advertisement about yourself for an online dating site. In your ad, describe yourself (in at least 40 words) and what you are looking for in a partner(in at least 40 words). Be honest and realistic in what you write, as if this truly were an ad you would submit to Þnd a romantic partner.2.   Get in groups of four (preferably two women and two men), and read your ads to each other. What do these ads tell you about gender and the way we aresocialized to maintain and conform to gender roles? Dig beneath the surface in analyzing (a) what is included in the ads and how this reßects gendersocialization and (b) what isnÕt included in the ads and how this reßects gender socialization.EXERCISE 9.5Media Images ofWomen and MenWomen, read the following statement by Lynne Grefe, CEO of the National Eating Disorders Association, and answer the questions below it.In 1965, the average fashion model weighed just eight percent less than the average American woman. . . .  The average fashion model today is 5′11″ andweighs 117 pounds, which makes her thinner than 98 percent of women. Three-quarters of the female characters in TV situation comedies are underweight.Yet the average woman stands 5′4 ″, weighs 140 pounds and wears between a size 12 [and] 16. We know that continued exposure to unrealistic images islinked to depression, loss of self-esteem and the development of unhealthy eating habits in women and girls. Genetics may load the gun, but society pulls thetrigger. (National Eating Disorders Association, 2009, para. 5)1.   Do you think the media regularly exposes you to unrealistic images of women? Why or why not?2.   Do you ever Þnd yourself trying to mold your body into one of those unrealistic images? Why or why not?3.   What do you think you and other people can do to (a) counter the effects of and (b) diminish the prevalence of such unrealistic portrayals of women in themedia?Men, read ÒIf Being a Man Means Having Body Hair and Sweating, Why Are the Sexy Guys in Ads Immune to Both?Ó athttp://seedmagazine.com/content/article/the_media_assault_on_male_body_image(http://seedmagazine.com/content/article/the_media_assault_on_male_body_image) , and answer the following questions:1.   Do you think the media regularly exposes you to unrealistic images of men, such as those described in the article? Why or why not?2.   What is your reaction to the Þndings described in the article? Does your answer relate to the amount of media you tend to consume? Why or why not?3.   What do you think you and other people can do to (a) counter the effects of and (b) diminish the prevalence of such unrealistic portrayals of men in themedia?EXERCISE 9.6A (Gendered) TourThrough a Toy StoreGo to a major (chain) toy store, and try to Þnd a toy (not a piece of sports equipment) that is not marketed speciÞcally toward a boy or a girl. Be sure to take note ofthe following:1.   What is the layout of the store? Are there distinct boysÕ and girlsÕ sections?2.   What types of toys are marketed toward girls? What types of toys are marketed toward boys?3.   What types of words and descriptions are used on the toys to market them toward girls or boys?4.   Are there many toys that do not indicate on the packaging (e.g., have pictures of either all girls or all boys on it) the sex of the child for which they aredeemed appropriate?5.   How did you Þnd the toy you selected? Was it easy or difÞcult to Þnd? Where was it located? Based on your experience in the toy store, write a two- tothree-page paper that analyzes how toys are a means of gender socialization. What values do they teach boys and girls? Why? For what social roles arethese toys teaching and training boys and girls?

EXERCISE 9.7The StormThe following videos provide good illustrations of the ongoing struggle over cultural norms about same-sex relationships: ÒA Gathering StormÓ athttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xGi2r-M_gQ8 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xGi2r-M_gQ8) and the parody of it, ÒA Gaythering Storm,Ó athttp://www.funnyordie.com/videos/6eddb255b2/a-gaythering-storm (http://www.funnyordie.com/videos/6eddb255b2/a-gaythering-storm) .Watch the videos, and answer the following questions:1.   Did you Þnd yourself agreeing with the message of ÒA Gathering StormÓ? What about your gender socialization led you to feel this way?2.   How did you react to ÒA Gaythering StormÓ? What about your gender socialization led you to feel this way?3.   Fifty years from now, how do you think most Americans will view each of these videos? Why? Does your response provide evidence that gender roles aresocial constructions? Why or why not?EXERCISE 9.8Gender, Politics, andPolitical PowerGo to the CAWP website at http://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/ (http://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/) . Browse through the information on the site, and read some of theresearch it contains on women and politics.1.   What did you learn about women and the political realm? Does the information youÕve uncovered surprise you at all? Why or why not?2.   Have you ever thought about running for political ofÞce? Why or why not?3.   (Option 1) If you have thought of running, do you think your gender would affect the likelihood of your attaining the political ofÞce you sought? Based onthe information found on the CAWP website, discuss how you think your gender would (a) affect how you would be portrayed by the media, (b) how thepublic would perceive you, and (c) your chances of winning.(Option 2) If you havenÕt thought of running, do you think gender socialization has affected this decision? Why or why not? Pretend now that you areinterested in running, and answer the questions posed in Option 1.4.   Imagine that you are the campaign manager for a female candidate running for president. How would you advise her? What should she stress in hercampaign speeches? How should she speak? How should she dress? What issues would you suggest she take on, and what issues would you advise her tostay away from?5.   How might your advice be different if the candidate were a man? What concerns might you have that you wouldnÕt have if the candidate were a woman?What might you not have to worry about if the candidate were a man instead of a woman?6.   What do your answers to Question 5 tell you about the importance of gender roles in the public imagination? What do they tell you about the socialconstruction of these roles? What do they tell you about the connections between gender and power?EXERCISE 9.9Leadership QualitiesThis exercise will require three short surveys to be administered in sequence to three different pools of respondents. (The easiest method would be to administer thesurvey to three of your classes, making sure no student responds to more than one of the surveys.)1.   Create a short form with one question and space for about 10 answers. Ask the respondents to write down their sex (but not their names) on the top of thepage. The question on the form should read, ÒWhat personal qualities make one a natural leader?Ó Ask the respondents to write a list of about 10 qualitiesthat make one a natural leader. Collect answers from a class that has at least 20 students.2.   Compile a list of all the answers given by the respondents. Then, order them from the most commonly offered responses to the least common. Finally, selectthe top 10 responses in terms of frequency.3.   Create a form with a four-column table, and list the top 10 personal qualities from the Þrst survey under the heading ÒPersonal Attributes.Ó Label the othercolumns ÒMasculine,Ó ÒFeminine,Ó and ÒEqually Masculine & Feminine,Ó as shown on the next page.4.   Ask the members of a different class (with at least 20 students) to rate each attribute as Þtting best into one of the three categories. Ask the respondents towrite down their sex (but not their names) at the top of the page. Collect the forms when they are Þnished.5.   Summarize how many of the popular leadership qualities are associated with masculine identity and how many are associated with feminine identity.6.   Survey a different class (with at least 20 students), using a new form that lists all of the attributes and asks respondents to indicate their sex and to evaluateeach attribute on a scale from least to most desirable as follows:For each of the following personal attributes, please circle the number that indicates how desirable you Þnd it as a feature of a womanÕs personality:

7.   Collect the forms, and average the ratings. Overall, how desirable did the respondents Þnd leadership qualities to be in women?8.   Modify the form in Step 6 to measure how desirable those characteristics are in men. Compare the results.9.   Compare the responses of the male and female respondents, and write a two- to three-page paper summarizing and sociologically analyzing your results.What do you believe are the causes and effects of the trends you have identiÞed in your data?EXERCISE 9.10Marriage and Babies:Which Comes First?1.   Why does it generally make economic sense to wait to have a baby until after marriage or a legal partnership?2.   Under what circumstances would it not necessarily make economic sense to wait to have a baby until after marriage or a legal partnership?Answer either 3a or 3b.3a.   For you, personally, does it (or did it) make economic sense to wait to have a baby until after marriage or a legal partnership? Why or why not?3b.   How do you think peopleÕs decision to have children (a) with or (b) without Þrst becoming married or legally partnered affects society?4.   How do you think (a) your sex, (b) your race and ethnicity, (c) your religious background, (d) your age, and (e) your social class inßuenced your answers toQuestion 3a or 3b?EXERCISE 9.11Promoting GenderEquality Throughoutthe WorldGo to the United Nations Development FundsÕ State of World Population 2013: Motherhood in Childhood at https://www.unfpa.org/swp(https://www.unfpa.org/swp) , and watch at least two of the short videos on the site.Then, answer the following questions:1.   What stories were told in each of the videos?2.   How did the videos reveal the relationship among education, adolescent motherhood, and gender equality?3.   How did they inßuence your views on gender inequality throughout the globe and the most effective means to address it? Why?Extra credit: Write a one- to two-page paper that uses your sociological imagination in developing the plan for a program that would promote gender equalityworldwide (or in a speciÞc country). Be creative, strategic, and speciÞc.EXERCISE 9.12Single and UnequalRead ÒTwo Classes, Divided by ÔI DoÕÓ at http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/15/us/two-classes-in-america-divided-by-i-do.html?ref=us&pagewanted=all(http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/15/us/two-classes-in-america-divided-by-i-do.html?ref=us&pagewanted=all) , and watch the ÒSingle and UnequalÓ video thataccompanies it. Then, answer the following questions in a two- to three-page paper.1.   How does the information in the article and video relate to your own life?2.   How does what you learned from the article and video relate to the key three points you learned in this chapter and/or the chapter on social stratiÞcation?3.   How has completing this exercise inßuenced your own perception of the impact of marriage on (a) a family and (b) society? Why?DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1.   Think about the division of labor along gender lines in the household in which you grew up. Who did what? Why was it like that? Would you want to maintain orchange this in your own adult household? Why? If you are cohabitating now (with a spouse, partner, or roommates), discuss how you divide the labor in yourcurrent household and if it is similar to the way household chores were distributed in your family of origin (and why or why not).2.   What does Òequal rightsÓ mean to you? How much equality is there between men and women in U.S. society?3.   Gender role socialization begins at birth, or before. Friends and relatives want to know the sex of the expected child so that they can purchase gender-appropriateblankets, pillows, bibs, and clothes (blue or pink). The socialization continues and becomes more intense as children get older. Is it possible to raise boys and girls inthe same way? Is it desirable? What are some of the obvious ways in which children are taught gender roles? Can people change those to reduce gender-baseddiscrimination? Should we? If so, how? Be speciÞc in outlining some proactive ways to create gender equity through changing gender roles and expectations.4.   How are gender roles related to sex roles? What do they teach us about how to act sexually and with whom to have sex?5.   Why should women in the United States care about the status of women in Bangladesh or Ethiopia or other distant nations? Is there any responsibility for the U.S.

womenÕs movement to participate in the global womenÕs movement? Why or why not? If so, what are some of the ways in which U.S. women can contribute?6.   Why should men be interested in promoting equal rights and opportunities for women? What are some appropriate ways for men to help women gain greater social,political, and economic power?7.   Would you feel (a) more comfortable and (b) more secure with a female or a male president? Why? How do you think gender socialization inßuenced your answer?How do you think the courses that made you aware of gender socialization inßuenced your answer? If you answered that you would feel more secure with a man aspresident, what would need to happen to change your mind?8.   What do you think would be the most effective way to diminish social inequality between the sexes in the United States? Political inequality? Economic inequality?9.   If you were to conduct a study about sex discrimination, how would you go about doing so? What theoretical perspective would best help you make sense of yourÞndings?10.   Describe how women of color are Òdoubly oppressedÓ and lesbian women of color are Òtriply oppressedÓ in our society. Does your friendship circle include peopleof various (a) genders, (b) sexual orientations, and (c) races? Why or why not?SUGGESTIONS FOR SPECIFIC ACTIONS1.   Are you interested in promoting economic equality for women? Go to the website of 9 to 5, National Organization of Working Women, at http://www.9to5.org(http://www.9to5.org) . Read about the efforts 9 to 5 is making to Þght for the issues of working women. If you want to become part of one of the 9 to 5 campaigns,follow the steps on their ÒGet InvolvedÓ and ÒAction AlertÓ pages.2.   Go to http://www.freethechildren.com/get-involved/toolkits/the-power-of-a-girl (http://www.freethechildren.com/get-involved/toolkits/the-power-of-a-girl) /, and readÒThe Power of a Girl.Ó Then, read ÒNelly Furtado: Supporting GirlsÕ EducationÓ at http://www.freethechildren.com/nelly (http://www.freethechildren.com/nelly) .Then, go to http://www.freethechildren.com/international-programming/ (http://www.freethechildren.com/international-programming/) , and help raise the moneyto adopt a village!3.   Go to the Human Rights Watch website at http://hrw.org (http://hrw.org) , learn about their campaigns to stop human rights violations against women, andparticipate in one (write ÒwomenÓ in the search bar).Please go to this bookÕs website at http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e (http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e) to Þnd further civic engagement opportunities, resources,and peer-reviewed articles related to this chapter.NOTES1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_56#rnote1) .   A very small percentage of the population is born with both male and female sexualcharacteristics (known as intersexuality). Almost always in these cases, an operation is performed shortly after birth to make the childÕs sex organs primarily male orfemale (usually female).2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_56#rnote2) .   Sex change operations, although very painful and expensive, are possible. However,few people choose to go through them, and even fewer have the means and opportunity to have such operations.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_58#rnote3) .   His comments about making conversations with the other parents (all mothers!)waiting to pick up their children from school are quite amusing. While he can hold his own when the conversations turn to laundry, he says he would much rather bediscussing football. Just because people have the power to defy some gender role expectations does not mean that gender socialization has not affected them at all.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_59#rnote4) .   And boys are taught to distance themselves from ÒgirlishÓ behavior. The saying ÒYoucry like a girlÓ is one of the many ways boys are taught to be anything but Òlike a girl.Ó5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_61#rnote5) .   See the Center for American Women and Politics (CAWP) website athttp://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/index.php (http://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/index.php) for more information about women in the political realm.REFERENCESAssociated Press. (2008, April 4). Clinton responds to seemingly sexist shouts. Retrieved from http://www.usatoday.com/news/politics/election2008/2008-01-07-clinton-iron-emotion_N.htm (http://www.usatoday.com/news/politics/election2008/2008-01-07-clinton-iron-emotion_N.htm)Aumann, K., Galinsky, E., & Matos, K. (2011, July). The new male mystique (Families and Work Institute, National Study of the Changing Workforce). Retrieved fromhttp://www.familiesandwork.org/site/research/reports/newmalemystique.pdf (http://www.familiesandwork.org/site/research/reports/newmalemystique.pdf)Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2011, March 16). Women in the labor force: A databook (2010 ed.). Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlf-databook2010.htm(http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlf-databook2010.htm)Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2012, May 1). Women as a percent of total employed in selected occupations, 2011. Retrieved fromhttp://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2012/ted_20120501.htm (http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2012/ted_20120501.htm)Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2013a, June 2). American Time Use Survey summary. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/news.release/atus.nr0.htm(http://www.bls.gov/news.release/atus.nr0.htm)Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2013b, October). BLS reports: Highlights of womenÕs earnings in 2012 (Rep. 1045). Retrieved fromhttp://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswom2012.pdf (http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswom2012.pdf)Bureau of Labor Statistics (2013c, May 10). Happy MotherÕs Day from BLS: Working mothers in 2012. Retrieved fromhttp://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2013/ted_20130510.htm (http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2013/ted_20130510.htm)Center for American Women and Politics. (2012). Facts: State legislature. Retrieved fromhttp://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/fast_facts/levels_of_ofÞce/state_legislature.php (http://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/fast_facts/levels_of_ofÞce/state_legislature.php)Child Trends. (2012). Family structure. Retrieved from http://www.childtrendsdatabank.org/?q=node/334 (http://www.childtrendsdatabank.org/?q=node/334)Child Trends. (2014). Non-marital births: Educational differences. Retrieved from http://www.childtrends.org/non-marital-births-educational-differences/(http://www.childtrends.org/non-marital-births-educational-differences/)Commuri, S., & Gentry, J. W. (2005, September). Resource allocation in households with women as chief wage earners. Journal of Consumer Research, 32, 185Ð195.Confessore, N., & Peters, J. W. (2014, April 28). Gay rights push shifts its focus to south and west. The New York Times. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/28/us/politics/gay-rights-push-shifts-its-focus-south-and-west.html?hp (http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/28/us/politics/gay-rights-

push-shifts-its-focus-south-and-west.html?hp)DeNavas-Walt, C., Proctor, B. D., & Smith, J. (2011, September). Income, poverty, and health insurance coverage in the United States: 2010 (U.S. Bureau of theCensus). Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/prod/2011pubs/p60Ð239.pdf (http://www.census.gov/prod/2011pubs/p60Ð239.pdf)DeParle, J. (2012). Two classes, divided by ÒI do.Ó The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/15/us/two-classes-in-america-divided-by-i-do.html?ref=us&pagewanted=all (http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/15/us/two-classes-in-america-divided-by-i-do.html?ref=us&pagewanted=all)Edin, K., & Kefalas, M. (2005). Promises I can keep: Why poor women put motherhood before marriage. Berkeley: University of California Press.Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2009, February 26). Big Vanilla Athletic Club to pay $161,000 to settle EEOC lawsuit for sexual harassment. Retrievedfrom http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/2-26-09.cfm (http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/2-26-09.cfm)Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2011, November 10). Amtrak to pay $171,483 to settle EEOC sex/wage discrimination suit. Retrieved fromhttp://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/11-10-11a.cfm (http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/11-10-11a.cfm)Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2012, June 25). FedEx Freight to pay $115,000 to settle EEOC sex discrimination lawsuit. Retrieved fromhttp://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/6-25-12b.cfm (http://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/newsroom/release/6-25-12b.cfm)Ely, R. J., Ibarra, H., & Kolb, D. (2011, September). Taking gender into account: Theory and design for womenÕs leadership development programs. Academy ofManagement Learning & Education, 10(3), 507Ð527.Francisco, D. (2012, February 22). As girls hockey skyrockets, tips to develop players (NHL.com (http://NHL.com) ). Retrieved from http://www.nhl.com/ice/news.htm?id=618378 (http://www.nhl.com/ice/news.htm?id=618378)Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network. (n.d.). Research (2003Ð2013). Retrieved from http://www.glsen.org/cgi-bin/iowa/all/research/index.html(http://www.glsen.org/cgi-bin/iowa/all/research/index.html)Goldstein, J. (2013, June 14). 5 settle gender bias suit against Fire Department. The New York Times. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/15/nyregion/women-settle-gender-bias-lawsuit-against-Þre-dept.html (http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/15/nyregion/women-settle-gender-bias-lawsuit-against-Þre-dept.html)Hamilton, B. E., Martin, J. A., & Ventura, S. J. (2011, November 17). Births: Preliminary data for 2010. National Vital Statistics Report, 60(2). Retrieved fromhttp://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr60/nvsr60_02.pdf (http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr60/nvsr60_02.pdf)Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2011, April 18). The social environment and suicide attempts in lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Pediatrics. Retrieved fromhttp://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2011/04/18/peds.2010-3020 (http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2011/04/18/peds.2010-3020)Heller, K. (2012). The myth of the high rate of divorce. Psych Central. Retrieved from http://psychcentral.com/lib/2012/the-myth-of-the-high-rate-of-divorce(http://psychcentral.com/lib/2012/the-myth-of-the-high-rate-of-divorce)Himmelsbach, A. (2012, September 9). PlayersÕ support of gay marriage alters N.F.L. image. The New York Times. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/09/sports/football/players-support-of-gay-marriage-alters-nß-image.html?_r=1(http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/09/sports/football/players-support-of-gay-marriage-alters-nß-image.html?_r=1)Hochschild, A. R. (with Machung, A.). (2003). The second shift. New York, NY: Penguin Books.Joyner, J. (2008, January 8). Hillary Clinton ÒIron my shirtÓ stunt. Outside the beltway. Retrieved fromhttp://www.outsidethebeltway.com/hillary_clinton_iron_my_shirt_stunt/ (http://www.outsidethebeltway.com/hillary_clinton_iron_my_shirt_stunt/)Kantor, J. (2013, September 7). Harvard Business School case study: Gender equity. The New York Times. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/08/education/harvard-case-study-gender-equity.html?_r=0 (http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/08/education/harvard-case-study-gender-equity.html?_r=0)Kosciw, J. G., Greytak, E. A., Diaz, E. M., & Bartkiewicz, M. J. (2010). The 2009 National School Climate Survey: The experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual andtransgender youth in our nationÕs schools. New York, NY: Gay, Lesbian & Straight Education Network.McGeehan, P. (2013, September 6). Bank of America to pay $39 million in gender bias case. The New York Times. Retrieved fromhttp://dealbook.nytimes.com/2013/09/06/bank-of-america-to-pay-39-million-in-gender-bias-case/?_r=0 (http://dealbook.nytimes.com/2013/09/06/bank-of-america-to-pay-39-million-in-gender-bias-case/?_r=0)McKinley, J. C., Jr. (2012, July 6). Hip-hop world gives gay singer support. The New York Times. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/07/arts/music/frank-ocean-draws-praise-for-declaring-his-homosexuality.html?_r=1(http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/07/arts/music/frank-ocean-draws-praise-for-declaring-his-homosexuality.html?_r=1)Moss-Racusin, C. A., Dovidio, J. F., Brescoll, V. L., Graham, M. J., & Handelsman, J. (2012, September 17). Science facultyÕs subtle gender biases favor male students.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 3157Ð3162.National Eating Disorders Association. (2009, February 26). National Eating Disorders Association unveils powerful and provocative ad campaign. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/press-rom/press-releases/2009-press-releases/national-eating-disorder-association-unveils-powerful-provocative-ad-campaign (http://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/press-rom/press-releases/2009-press-releases/national-eating-disorder-association-unveils-powerful-provocative-ad-campaign)Net Income. (2014, February 25). Jason Collins no. 98 top-seller Tuesday. Netsdaily. Retrieved from http://www.netsdaily.com/2014/2/25/5445580/jason-collins-no-98-goes-on-sale-tuesday (http://www.netsdaily.com/2014/2/25/5445580/jason-collins-no-98-goes-on-sale-tuesday)Pesta, A. (2012, November). The 2012 election brings a stunning array of Þrsts for women in Congress. The Daily Beast. Retrieved fromhttp://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/11/08/2012-election-brings-stunning-array-of-Þrsts-for-women-in-congress.html(http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/11/08/2012-election-brings-stunning-array-of-Þrsts-for-women-in-congress.html)Pew Charitable Trusts. (2010). Collateral costs: IncarcerationÕs effect on economic mobility. Washington, DC: Pew Charitable Trusts. Retrieved fromhttp://www.pewstates.org/uploadedFiles/PCS_Assets/2010/Collateral_Costs(1 (http://www.pewstates.org/uploadedFiles/PCS_Assets/2010/Collateral_Costs(1) ).pdfPew Research Center. (2012, April 25). More support for gun rights, gay marriage than in 2008, 2004. Retrieved from http://www.people-press.org/Þles/legacy-pdf/4-25-12%20Social%20Issues.pdf (http://www.people-press.org/Þles/legacy-pdf/4-25-12%20Social%20Issues.pdf)Pew Research Center for the People & the Press. (2013, June 6). Section 1: Same-sex marriage, civil unions and inevitability (LGBT in Changing Times Series).Retrieved from http://www.people-press.org/2013/06/06/section-1-same-sex-marriage-civil-unions-and-inevitability/ (http://www.people-press.org/2013/06/06/section-1-same-sex-marriage-civil-unions-and-inevitability/)Quart, A. (2013, August 17). Crushed by the cost of child care. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/08/17/crushed-by-the-cost-of-child-care/?hp (http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/08/17/crushed-by-the-cost-of-child-care/?hp)Sedghi, A. (2012, March, 7). International WomenÕs Day 2012: WomenÕs representation in politics. The Guardian. Retrieved fromhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog/2012/mar/07/women-representation-in-politics-worldwide(http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/datablog/2012/mar/07/women-representation-in-politics-worldwide)Slaughter, A.-M. (2012, July/August). Why women still canÕt have it all. The Atlantic. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2012/07/why-women-still-can-8217-t-have-it-all/9020 (http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2012/07/why-women-still-can-8217-t-have-it-all/9020)Soares, R., Cobb, B., Lebow, E., Winsten, H., Wojnas, V., & Regis, A. (2011). 2011 Catalyst census: Fortune 500 women executive ofÞcers and top earners. Catalyst.Retrieved from http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/2011-catalyst-census-fortune-500-women-executive-ofÞcers-and-top-earners

(http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/2011-catalyst-census-fortune-500-women-executive-ofÞcers-and-top-earners)Tannen, D. (2001). You just donÕt understand: women and men in conversation. New York, NY: HarperCollins.UNFPA (2012, August). Sex imbalances at birth: Current trends, consequences, and policy implications. Retrieved fromhttp://www.unfpa.org/webdav/site/global/shared/documents/publications/2012/Sex%20Imbalances%20at%20Birth.%20PDF%20UNFPA%20APRO%20publication%202012.pdf(http://www.unfpa.org/webdav/site/global/shared/documents/publications/2012/Sex%20Imbalances%20at%20Birth.%20PDF%20UNFPA%20APRO%20publication%202012.pdf)University of Michigan Institute for Social Research. (2007, January). Time, money and who does the laundry. Research Update, 4. Retrieved fromhttp://www.isr.umich.edu/home/news/research-update/2007-01.pdf (http://www.isr.umich.edu/home/news/research-update/2007-01.pdf)U.S. Bureau of the Census. (2011, December 5). One-third of fathers with working wives regularly care for their children (Census Bureau Reports). Retrieved fromhttp://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/children/cb11-198.html (http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/children/cb11-198.html)The Washington Post. (2012, November 7). Exit polls 2012: How votes are shifting. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/politics/2012-exit-polls/index.html#United-States (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/politics/2012-exit-polls/index.html#United-States)Watt, H., & Newell, C. (2013, October 7). Law Òdoes not prohibitÓ sex-selection abortions, DPP warns. The Telegraph. Retrieved fromhttp://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/10360386/Law-does-not-prohibit-sex-selection-abortions-DPP-warns.html(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/10360386/Law-does-not-prohibit-sex-selection-abortions-DPP-warns.html)Wood, J. (2009). Gendered lives: Communication, gender, and culture (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Zeliker, V. A. (2011, January 27). The gender of money. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from http://blogs.wsj.com/ideas-market/2011/01/27/the-gender-of-money(http://blogs.wsj.com/ideas-market/2011/01/27/the-gender-of-money)

 

This book is dedicated to the memory of Aiden Tomkins Odell and to all the families working to Þnd a cure for spinal muscular atrophy(SMA). You can learn about SMA and how to help Þnd a cure by going to http://www.fsma.org/Home (http://www.fsma.org/Home) .To read AidenÕs story, go to http://www.fsma.org/FSMACommunity/Photos/memorialphotos/index.cfm?ID=2820&TYPE=1203(http://www.fsma.org/FSMACommunity/Photos/memorialphotos/index.cfm?ID=2820&TYPE=1203) , and click on ÒOdell, Aiden Tomkins.Ó

 

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SPrefaceA Note From the Authors to the Students Reading This Bookociology is the coolest academic discipline. Seriously, what other area of study is better at helping you Þgure out how society operates and how you canuse that knowledge to create social change? Both of us were drawn to sociology because we wanted to Þgure out how to Þght injustice and promotedemocracy more effectively. It has also guided us in everyday life tasks, such as Þguring out how to get policies passed on campus, deciding whom to votefor, and learning why itÕs vital to earn a college degree in a service-based economy. This book is part of our efforts to get students hooked on sociology and,in the process, help them to become engaged and effective citizens who can strengthen our democratic society.This book is also part of a larger, national effort to Òeducate citizensÓ by encouraging students to participate in civic engagement exercises that connect theclassroom to the community. Organizations such as The Democracy Imperative, Campus Compact, and the American Democracy Project are establishingmovements to make civic engagement a part of the college experience for all undergraduates. College leaders all across the country realize that as educatorsthey are obligated to give students the tools they will require to be effective citizens as well as the skills they will need in the workforce. Leaders in all sectorsof society understand that higher education, when connected to the larger society, beneÞts everyone, on and off campus.We believe, as leaders of the American Sociological Association have noted when promoting public sociology, that sociology is particularly suited to teachingstudents what they need to know to become effective and full members of our society. As the prominent sociologist Randall Collins has pointed out, the twocore commitments of sociology are (a) to understand how society works and (b) to use that knowledge to make society better. We believe that helpingstudents learn how to think sociologically and use sociological tools is, in effect, enabling them to become better citizens. No doubt, the professors whoassigned this book to you also share this belief. They will gladly tell you why they think sociology is an incredibly useful and practical academic discipline.We also know that sociology is fun to learn and to teach. ThatÕs why we created a book that we hope will be enjoyable to use for both students and teachers.The exercises throughout the chapters allow students to connect the sociological knowledge that they are learning to their campus and the larger community.So as soon as you develop your sociological eye, you will make use of it! Please note that you will need to make sure you follow the rules for research onhuman subjects and get approval from the Institutional Review Board on your campus before carrying out some of these exercises. (Your professor will tellyou how to do so.) This book will also help you to connect your own life to the larger society, as you learn about the Òsociological imaginationÓ and thepower it has to positively affect your community. The Sociologist in Action sections in each chapter will give you powerful examples of how sociologystudents and professional sociologists (both professors and applied sociologists) use sociology in myriad ways in efforts to improve society. By the end of thebook, you can create your own Sociologist in Action section, in which youÕll show how you used sociological tools in efforts to inßuence society. If you wantto see more examples of sociologists in action please check out our other books, Sociologists in Action: Sociology, Social Change, and Social Justice andSociologists in Action on Inequalities: Race, Class, Gender, and Sexuality.We look forward to seeing your Sociologist in Action pieces and featuring many of them in future editions of this book and on the website for The EngagedSociologist (http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e (http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e) ). In the meantime, we hope you enjoy the book and use the knowledgeand skills you gain from it to make yourself a more effective citizen, strengthen our democracy, and work for a more just and civil society. We think that youwill discover what we discovered when we began our journey as sociologistsÑthat sociology is a cool and powerful tool. And, of course, we hope that youhave a lot of fun in the process!

W10Social InstitutionsFamily and Economyhat do social institutions have to do with your life? A lot! The makeup of your family, the laws you must follow, your professional career, yourschooling, and even whether or not you believe in a higher power (and, if so, what kind of higher power) are all based on the social institutions inyour society. You begin your life among family and learn about the world through educational institutions (schools) and perhaps through religious institutions(including rituals surrounding birth, marriage, and death). Much of your education is about preparing for life within structured economic institutions (thelabor market).1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_65#note1) All the while, your public life, and even your private one, is moved and shapedby the workings of political institutions. If the institutions change, so do you. Think about the impact of the Twenty-Sixth Amendment, which lowered thevoting age from 21 to 18, on the political power of all young U.S. citizens, and college students in particular.How do we know an institution when we see one? In everyday language, physical places, for example, a jail, are sometimes referred to as institutions. But insociology, social institutions are patterns of behavior governed by rules that are maintained through repetition, tradition, and legal support. Members of everysociety create and maintain social institutions to control human behavior and go about meeting their basic needs. How do we know what is a basic need for asociety? Try creating your own imaginary society and thinking about what you need to do for it to survive. What means of controlling behavior would youestablish to maintain your society? Keep in mind that you can eat what you like at home, but we all share the problem of where the garbage will go when youare done.Imagine that you and your fellow students are stranded on a distant planet that looks and feels like Earth but has no other human inhabitants. What is the Þrstthing you would do? Almost certainly, you would (a) Þgure out what you need to do to survive and (b) start assigning people to those tasks you determineneed doing. The Þrst thing you would probably need to do is ensure some semblance of order for these undertakings. So the Þrst institution you would set upis some sort of government. (WeÕre assuming that there are a lot of other students with you, not just a few classmates.) Second, you would have to startproducing some food, Þnding water, and arranging for some system to distribute these goods. Whether you all share equally or distribute the goods accordingto some complex system of entitlements, you would be creating a system that includes ownership and Òexchange value.Ó In other words, you would becreating an economic institution, an institution that organizes how a society generates, allocates, and uses products and services. Because the needs of yourgroup in this imaginary world would be different from the needs of the society in which you currently live, you would not need the same institutions in thesame way. But here is the interesting part about ideas and practices that become institutionalized: It is hard to imagine them differently. For that reason, youwould have a very hard time creating a government or an economy that did not strongly resemble the one you know now (or at least one that you have read orheard about). And yet, when you stop to think about it, there are innumerable ways in which societies could choose to organize their governments andeconomies.Although not everyone believes in a higher power or practices a religion, every known society has had some form of religious institution (just ask ananthropologist). Would you and your companions adopt a uniÞed system of belief to help you make sense of your new situation? If you were not rescuedquickly, you might start trying to establish, in an organized way, a connection between yourselves and a higher power. Organizing a new religion orreestablishing an old one (from Earth) might help you come to terms with your situation, feel that someone (or something) was watching over you, andbelieve that eventually (even if only when you die) you would be going to a better place, seeing old loved ones, and so forth. If you remained in the distantworld for more than a very short period of time, you would also have to set up rules about who could have sex with whom (to avoid nasty Þghts and toprotect physically vulnerable members of the population) and (eventually) who should take care of the offspring of such unions (and how). In doing so, youwould be establishing the institution of the family.Finally, if you remain stuck on that planet, you would have to ensure that new members born into your society could learn your culture and the skillsnecessary to help your society survive. You would have to establish a social institution responsible for educating the members of your society. Once you havedone so, you would have established the Þfth basic institution found in almost every society, an educational system.As you have probably already noticed, these institutions are all related to one another. A functionalist would maintain that they are also all interdependent.Just as a living organism begins to die if a single one of its major organs (e.g., the heart) starts to fail, functionalists maintain that if one institution is notworking properly in a society, all the others (and the aggregate society) will suffer as well. For example, if our education system is not carrying out itsfunction properly, young adults will not be prepared to get good jobs and therefore will not be able to support a family, pay taxes, Þnancially support theirreligious organizations, or buy goods. Eventually, the faulty educational system would harm the family, economic, religious, and political institutions.Unlike functionalists, conßict theorists examine the manner in which different interests in society work against one another. Karl Marx, for example,famously demonstrated that the worker class and the owner class were necessarily in conßict over just about everything that went on in society, from theorganization of work to the proper use of the police and courts to the workings of a free press. But conßict also occurs among social institutions. For example,some religious institutions believe that they should have control over governmental and educational institutions, and throughout the history of the UnitedStates, there has been a seesaw power relationship between economic and governmental institutions.Marx maintained that there was one institution that inßuences and largely directs all the other institutions. According to Marx (1859/1970), as the type of

economic system changes, so does the makeup of the other institutions. The government, the schools, the family, and religion are all tools for those who ownthe means of production. Marxism, therefore, begins with the assumption of economic determinismÑthat is, that the economic institutions shape the rest.Some political theorists, such as Niccolo Machiavelli (1469Ð1527), are political determinists. (Machiavelli, who is most remembered for his classic text ThePrince [1909/2001], deÞned war as an extension of politics, merely another means by which leaders seek to extend their inßuence.) There are also those forwhom religious institutions, or even social institutions (e.g., systems of racial privilege), form the determining institution, with the rest following. Althoughall the major institutions are tied to one another in some way, in this chapter, we will focus on the social institutions of the family and the economy.

10.1 The FamilyMarx (1859/1970) maintained that relations among family members and even the average size of families are inßuenced by changes in the economic system.For example, under an agrarian economic system, in which work is centered on the family, the size of families is large so that they can produce many workersto till the land and produce crops. As societies become industrialized and the work shifts to factories and other centralized locations, families become smaller.The move from farm to city means that families can no longer feed themselves through producing more food in the Þelds. More children would mean moremouths have to be fed through low-wage work in factories.According to MarxÕs writing partner, Friedrich Engels (1884/1942), families maintain the economic system of capitalism and the existing class structure.Legal marriages were created so that men would be able to know clearly who their heirs were so that they could bequeath their wealth to their male offspring.A marriage contract transferred a kind of ownership of the bride from her father, whose name she bore, to the husband, whose name she adopted. Thetraditional patriarchal family structure also worked to perpetuate the capitalist economic system because it allowed men to devote themselves to makingmoney while their wives took care of them, their children, and their home (for no pay). This system also contributed to the maintenance of gender inequality.Whereas conßict theorists use a macro-level approach to see connections between families and economic systems, symbolic interactionists use a micro-levelanalysis to focus on how institutions inßuence the roles men and women play and the status they assume in the family. As you learned in Chapter 9(ch0009.xlink.html) , even today, and even in the most egalitarian nations in the world, gender socialization within families contributes to inequality betweenmen and women.Even in Sweden, one of the most gender-egalitarian societies in the world, women still do more of the household labor than do men. Even though bothhusbands and wives in Sweden are likely to say that they should share their domestic chores equally, women still end up doing more of the work around thehouse. While most younger Swedes have been taught that gender equality is a good thing, they have also been inßuenced by the gender inequality theyexperienced as children and still see around them. Until this disparity in egalitarian goals and outcomes is bridged, there will remain, even in Sweden, Òadistinctive gap between the gender values individuals express and the actual gender division of labour they experienceÓ (Lane & BŠck-Wiklund, 2011, p.221).However, even though gender inequality remains in societies around the world, the institution of the family is changing. Across the globe, the marriage rate isfalling, and the cohabitation rate is rising. For example, whereas the divorce rate in the United States has fallen to 3.6 in 2011 from 4.0 in 2000, the marriagerate also fell during that same period (from 8.2 to 6.8), for every 1,000 people (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). In 1960, 72.2% of those 18years or older in the United States were married, compared with 50.5% in 2012 (Fry, 2014).The percentage of babies born to unwed parents has increased since the late 1990s. In 2012, 40.7% of all babies in the United States were born to unmarriedwomen (Martin, Hamilton, Osterman, Curtin, & Mathews, 2013), As Stephanie Coontz, the author of Marriage, a History: From Obedience to Intimacy, orHow Love Conquered Marriage (2005b), puts it, ÒFrom Turkey to South Africa to Brazil, countries are having to codify the legal rights and obligations ofsingle individuals and unmarried couples raising childrenÓ (quoted in Coontz, 2005a, para. 11). The pattern is clear: Fewer children are being raised bymarried parents.Other changes to the institution of the family are now taking place. Same-sex couples and working mothers are becoming increasingly common andinßuencing the shape of families in the United States and across the globe. For example, as noted in Chapter 9 (ch0009.xlink.html) in this book, a growingnumber of U.S. states and nations across the globe recognize marriages or civil unions between same-sex adults.2(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_65#note2) Also, most mothers now work outside the home (as well as in it). Today, 75.1% of Americanmothers with children under 18 years work outside the home. The percentage of employed mothers with children under the age of 6 has also increaseddramatically over the past few decades (from 39% in 1975 to 64.8% in 2012) (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2013; Pew Research Center, 2012). Even childrenraised by two married parents tend to have working mothers. In 2012, among married couples with children, 59% had both parents in the paid labor force(Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2013).ItÕs important to note that working both outside and inside the home is not a new phenomenon for women, particularly for women of color (Coontz, 1992).However, the fact that so many women of all races and social classes are now doing so is a relatively new social phenomenon. Today, the options familieshave, such as keeping one potential breadwinner at home, hiring a caregiver for their children, sending their children to day care facilities, and so forth, allrelate to the economic position of the family. With both day care fees and household expenses, such as medical insurance, rising rapidly, parents with limitededucation and job skills face almost impossible choices when trying to both support their families Þnancially and supervise and care for their children.Family life can be even more expensive and stressful for parents who are part of the Òsandwich generation,Ó meaning they have both dependent children andelderly parents who need care. While grandparents can be of great help to their adult children, they can also need assistance from them. As life expectanciesrise and the baby boomers age, their adult children are often faced with Þguring out how to assist their parents while raising their own children. Limits onprescription and health care coverage can leave many elderly people unable to pay for their medical needs or afford nursing assistance when they need care.Adult children, often with children of their own, must frequently face tough family and economic choices. The situation is even bleaker if they are uninsured.If that is the case, it is likely that they cannot even afford to take care of themselves! Fortunately, the numbers of the uninsured has declined since the rolloutof the Affordable Care Act in 2014 and should continue to fall as the act goes into full effect over the next couple of years. From a high of 18% in 2013, theuninsured rate among those 18 to 64 years of age had dropped to 14.7% in March 2014 (Levy, 2014).

10.2 The Economic SystemEconomies organize how a society creates, distributes, and uses its goods and services. Today, we all live in a global economy in which the economic systemof capitalism dominates. As Max Weber described it, the rational capitalism that arose in the West and that has spawned globalization requires paid (notslave) labor, free movement of goods, and sound legal and Þnancial institutions. It also requires a bureaucratic system that hinges on educated administrators,accurate record keeping, and the technology to allow for long-distance communication and transportation (Collins, 1980). Goods and services are created andsold, for proÞt, across national borders at an increasingly rapid pace.Inequality among nations is related to what each contributes to and takes from the global economy. ÒGlobal northÓ nations (most postindustrial nations, suchas the United States, Western European nations, and Japan) primarily contribute service work in the knowledge economy, with high-skilled workers (Odeh,2010). In contrast, Òglobal SouthÓ nations (e.g., most Latin American, African, Middle Eastern, and Asian nations) tend to produce raw materials or providecheap labor to produce the goods consumed in global North nations. While some global South nations, such as India and China, are becoming increasinglycompetitive (in 2012 alone, China graduated 16.8 million college students [FlorCruz, 2012]), most global South nations are far from equal competitors tonations in the global North. In addition, corporations based in global North nations often control the resources of global South nations, and this makes itdifÞcult for the poorer nations to build the infrastructure needed to create stronger economies. The nations with strong educational, banking, legal, andmilitary systems have beneÞted the most from the globalization process and have used their economic advantage to increase their power in determiningglobal governance and the future of the global economy. Other sectors of the world have not beneÞted as much from globalization. The World TradeOrganization (WTO), which oversees the terms of global trade; the International Monetary Fund, which manages global Þnancial markets; and the WorldBank, which provides loans for economic development, are primarily controlled by global North nations and inßuenced by the concerns of globalcorporations, further disadvantaging the worldÕs poorer nations.Today, more than a third of the world lives on less than $2 a day and 22% on less than $1.25 a day (Phelps & Crabtree, 2013). Contrary to the oft-spokenretort that ÒthatÕs a lot of money Ôover there,ÕÓ the result is that there are nearly 842 million hungry people in the world (FAO, IFAD, & WFP, 2013), 748million people lack access to clean water (World Health Organization & UNICEF, 2014), 2.5 billion people live without basic sanitation (World HealthOrganization & UNICEF, 2014), and 1.2 billion people have no electricity (Plumer, 2013). Almost half of the worldÕs wealth is held by just the top 1% ofwealthy people, and this 1% of the wealthiest has 65 times as much wealth as the bottom 50% of the world combined (Fuentes-Nieva and Galasso, 2014). Infact, the wealthiest 85 individuals in the world have more wealth than the bottom 3.5 billion people combined (Fuentes-Nieva and Galasso, 2014).Growing levels of economic inequality can also be seen within global North nations. In the United States, inequalities have steadily increased over the past 20years, as the middle and lower classes have lost income and the very wealthy have gained greater income. In 2012, the median household income (meaningthat half of all households made more and half made less) of all Americans was $51,371. Adjusted for inßation, this was a 6.6% drop from the medianincome in 2000 (Noss, 2013). On the other hand, the top earners have done very well. Today, the average CEO makes 273 times as much as the averageworker (Mishel & Sabadish, 2013).One of the most drastic outcomes of these trends in wealth and poverty is that one in Þve two-parent households and almost one in three single-parenthouseholds struggled to afford food in the Þrst 6 months of 2013 (Stutzman & Mendes, 2013). Many of the hungry are the working poor. For example,Winsome Stoner works full-time at a food pantry in her neighborhood in New York City. Her husband also works. Their combined income, though, stillleaves them relying on food stamps (or SNAP beneÞts, as they are now called) and struggling to feed their seven-person household. One in seven Americansnow relies on food stamps to feed his or her family (Seversen & Hu, 2013). Winsome says that food stamps do Òcushion me a bit, it helps. But we still run outof food by the end of the month. The middle, sometimes.Ó Their food stamp allowance of $640.00 a month provides $1 per meal for each member of theirhousehold. In November 2013, Congress cut the food stamp budget and, therefore, the food stamps given to Winsome and all others who rely on them(Resnikoff, 2013, para. 15).As the quote above illustrates, workers on the low end of the global economic spectrum toil for very little compensation. The result is often hunger anddeprivation for the workers and their families. Some work for even less than the minimum wage. Although sweatshops are most common in global Southnations because of lack of unions and inadequately enforced (or nonexistent) labor laws, there are also pockets of sweatshops in global North nations,including many right here in the United States. The study described in Bernhardt et al.Õs (2009) Broken Laws, Unprotected Workers: Violations ofEmployment and Labor Laws in AmericaÕs Cities revealed that Òmany employment and labor laws are regularly and systematically violatedÓ (p. 2) in theUnited States. The authors of this report surveyed workers in low-wage industries in Chicago, New York, and Los Angeles. They discovered that more thanone out of four low-wage workers were not paid even the minimum wage during the previous week and more than three out of four of those who workedlonger than 40 hours the week prior to the survey were not paid overtime wages as required.However, even workers who do not have their wages stolen from them can feel the pain of being on the bottom end of a global society in which inequality isincreasing. For example, in Virginia in recent years, workers in an Ikea factory were forced to work overtime with little or no notice. They were all paid muchless than workers who reside where the parent company is located (Sweden). Workers in Sweden were paid $19.00 an hour with generous beneÞts, comparedwith the American workersÕ hourly rate of $8.00. Approximately one third of the American workers were temporary hires and made even less. In response,the workers voted to join a union (Eidelson, 2011; Popper, 2011). And seeing the gains the Ikea employees made with their union contract in Virginia,workers in the Ikea factory in Maryland voted to join the same union the following year (Jamieson, 2012).Organized people have pressured their government to take action to address wage theft and other labor violations, such as those described above. As moreand more organized citizens demand that their elected leaders do something to curb the abuse of workers, anti-sweatshop legislation has become increasinglycommon. Seven states and 44 cities have adopted sweat-free policies3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_65#note3) (seehttp://www.sweatfree.org/policieslist (http://www.sweatfree.org/policieslist) ).College students have been some of the most powerful opponents of sweatshops. On campuses across the nation, undergraduates have been striving to makesure that the apparel sold on their campus is made in sweat-free factories. As noted in Chapter 1 (ch0001.xlink.html) (this book), 180 colleges and universities

(such as The College of the Holy Cross, Bridgewater State University, Beloit College, Indiana University, California State University at San Bernardino, andMiami University) have joined the Worker Rights Consortium (WRC) Òto combat sweatshops and protect the rights of workers who make apparel and otherproductsÓ (WRC, 2013, para. 1).4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_65#note4)Sociologist in Action: Alan AshbaughIn the following paragraphs, Alan Ashbaugh, a recent college graduate, describes how he uses the sociological tools he gained as a sociology major atColby College in Maine in working to bring about social justice locally, nationally, and globally.Studying sociology greatly inßuenced the course of my life, giving me the tools to examine the social world, the skills and inspiration to effect positivechange, and the direction to use my sociological training meaningfully and effectively.In my sociology classes at Colby College, Waterville, Maine, I learned about the nature of society; about the harsh and complex realities of socialissues; and, most important, that change toward a more just world is possible. A sociological truth that I will always remember is that society is not astatic, unstoppable force, as it is so often referred to in popular media, but it is instead a constantly emerging and shifting combination of individualsmaking decisions and taking action. Thus, the world is already changing; we need only to guide it in the right direction by taking effective social action.Of the many issues we explored in my introductory sociology course, the one that stood out for me is the vast economic inequality in my owncommunity and internationally, as well as the social classes that create and perpetuate these inequalities. A subsequent sociology course on globalizationbroadened my sociological perspective to focus on the global issues of poverty, inequality, and justice, and the impact of each individualÕs actions onpeople worldwide. Examining these issues led me to a more vivid understanding of the social world; a stronger grasp of issues in my local andinternational communities; and a better sense of my place in Colby, Waterville, and society as a whole. This newfound understanding inspired me to getinvolved on and off campus, using my sociological training to move toward change. I became a founding leader of the Colby South End Coalition,which addresses the social and economic divide between Colby and its hometown of Waterville by encouraging volunteerism, dialogue, and a comingtogether of the two communities. I also took on the role as head of Colby Habitat for Humanity, which tackled economic inequality locally byconnecting low-income families with decent, affordable housing. Moving beyond Waterville in scope, I helped to organize the Voter Coalition to Ògetout the voteÓ for the upcoming presidential election, and I traveled to Chile to investigate the social promise of the emerging concept of corporate socialresponsibility.When I graduated from Colby, I did not have a set career path. I only knew that I loved raising awareness of social issues and bringing students togetherto take action, and that I wanted to continue to be socially active beyond college. My senior year, I had the good fortune of learning about a jobopportunity at an organization called Free The Children through an inspiring, socially involved professor in my sociology department. Free TheChildren was founded in 1995 by a 12-year-old boy named Craig Kielburger, who was so appalled at the practice of child labor he had read about in thenewspaper that he gathered a group of his friends and classmates to raise awareness and take action to effect changeÑexactly what I was passionateabout. In the past 10 years, Free The Children has grown to become the largest network of children helping children through education, having builtover 400 schools, educating more than 35,000 children every day, having sent more than $9 million worth of medical supplies, and having implementedalternative income projects beneÞting more than 20,000 people in developing countries. Free The ChildrenÕs mission and the work they do matched myown personal goals and beliefs, so I applied for the position just prior to graduation and was hired! Today, as an International Youth Coordinator at FreeThe Children, I provide youth with the tools to make a difference in the world, such as information on social issues, effective fundraising andawareness-raising techniques, and the public speaking skills to powerfully communicate their passion to their peers. I use my sociological training eachday in my work at Free The Children in examining the social issues that we are working to address, discovering the best ways to encourage and enableyoung people to effect positive change and Òbecome agents of change for their peers around the world.Ó The image of society I formed from mysociology classes of a constantly emerging collection of individual actions, in conjunction with the social issues we studied, help me to remember everyday the power that each individual has to make a huge difference and the tremendous importance of doing so.SOURCE: Courtesy of Alan Ashbaugh.EXERCISE 10.1Functions of theEconomyImagine that you live in a society in which the economic institution is not working properly (e.g., there is high unemployment or high inßation).According to the functionalist theoretical perspective, how might the decline in the economic institution affect the other institutions in society?SpeciÞcally, how would it affect the (a) family and (b) educational, (c) religious, and (d) governmental institutions?Now imagine that you live in a society in which the economic institution is strong and thriving. According to the functionalist theoretical perspective,how might the thriving economic institution affect the other institutions in society? SpeciÞcally, how would it affect the (a) family and (b) educational,(c) religious, and (d) governmental institutions?EXERCISE 10.2The Changing

American FamilyThere are multiple structural and cultural causes for the changes in the institution of the family that are noted above. There is also ongoing debate as towhether these changes are more positive or negative for society. Write a one- to two-page essay that examines these changes in the family from either(a) a conßict perspective or (b) a functionalist perspective. (If need be, refer back to the descriptions of these perspectives in Chapter 2(ch0002.xlink.html) .)When writing your essay, be sure to1.   provide an overview of how society operates according to the theoretical perspective you have chosen and then apply that perspective to thechanges in the social institution of the family and2.   discuss whether someone coming from the theoretical perspective you have chosen would approve or disapprove of the changes in the family(and why or why not).EXERCISE 10.3When a Family BreaksDownWhat happens when a family breaks down? What does our society do to strengthen families and make sure that children are protected? Listen toÒÔHopeÕs Boy,Õ a Memoir of Childhood in Foster CareÓ at http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=68349288(http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=68349288) , and then answer the following questions:1.   What is the position in the economic institution of most people who experienced foster care? Do they tend to be economically successful?2.   Use CooleyÕs concept of the looking-glass self (Chapter 5 (ch0005.xlink.html) ) and/or the theories covered in the deviance chapter (Chapter 6(ch0006.xlink.html) ) to make sense of why foster children tend not to succeed.3.   Using the theories you discussed and the information in the story to which you listened, what policy recommendations would you make to improvethe foster care system in the United States?EXERCISE 10.4The World TradeOrganization1.   Go to the Global Exchange website, and read about the World Trade Organization (WTO) at http://www.globalexchange.org/resources/WTO(http://www.globalexchange.org/resources/WTO) , and then go to the WTOÕs own website and read ÒWhat Is the WTO?Ó athttp://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/whatis_e.htm (http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/whatis_e.htm) .2.   Read the descriptions of the WTO on both websites.3.   Write a paper that answers either Questions a to c or Questions d and e below.a.   What groups or organizations are represented in each document?b.   As a sociologist, which documents do you think are most convincing? Explain why.c.   Did you know very much about the WTO before reading this chapter and these documents? If yes, what gave you that knowledge? If not, whydo you think you didnÕt know much about the WTO?d.   How would a conßict theorist describe the function of the WTO?e.   How would a functionalist theorist describe the function of the WTO?Extra credit: Answer all Þve of the above questions (aÐe). Then, outline what you and your classmates could do to create better awareness on campusand in your local community about the WTO in an effort to help put pressure on it to operate in a more transparent and equitable manner.EXERCISE 10.5When ItÕs AmericanWorkers Who AreExploitedRead ÒIkeaÕs U.S. Factory Churns Out Unhappy WorkersÓ at http://articles.latimes.com/2011/apr/10/business/la-Þ-ikea-union-20110410(http://articles.latimes.com/2011/apr/10/business/la-Þ-ikea-union-20110410) , and write a two- to three-page paper in which you answer the followingquestions:1.   How does the information in the article relate to the material in this chapter?

2.   How does it make you feel to read about how a Swedish corporation treats workers in the United States far worse than its workers in Sweden?3.   Do you think that these inequities should be addressed and, if so, by whom? If not, why not?4.   Would you hold American corporations to the same standards when they employ workers in foreign countries as you are suggesting we holdIkea to when employing American laborers? Why or why not?5.   How did this article and the chapter inßuence your perspective on global inequality? Why?EXERCISE 10.6Why Are We CuttingFood Stamps?Read and watch the related video ÒCut in Food Stamps Forces Hard Choices on PoorÓ at http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/08/us/cut-in-food-stamps-forces-hard-choices-on-poor.html?pagewanted=2&_r=0&src=rechp (http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/08/us/cut-in-food-stamps-forces-hard-choices-on-poor.html?pagewanted=2&_r=0&src=rechp) , and read ÒFood Stamp Cut Backed by Republicans With Voters on RollsÓ athttp://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-08-14/food-stamp-cut-backed-by-republicans-with-voters-on-rolls.html(http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-08-14/food-stamp-cut-backed-by-republicans-with-voters-on-rolls.html) and ÒThe Insanity of our Food PolicyÓ athttp://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/11/16/the-insanity-of-our-food-policy/ (http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/11/16/the-insanity-of-our-food-policy/) . Then answer the following questions. Can you relate to the lives of the people described in these articles and the video? Why or why not?1.   Were you aware that one in seven Americans relies on food stamps? What is your reaction to that fact? Why?2.   How does cutting the federal budget for food stamps negatively affect the economy, as described in the articles and the video? Who beneÞtsfrom such cuts?3.   What theoretical perspective described in this book best explains why some poor people, who rely on food stamps, vote for members ofCongress who support cutting food stamp beneÞts? Why?4.   Describe what steps you can take to curb hunger in (a) your local community, (b) your state, and (c) your nation.EXERCISE 10.7Students CreatingChange: The Anti-Sweatshop MovementGo to the United Students Against Sweatshops website at http://usas.org (http://usas.org) .Write a two-page paper that describes (a) one campaign on which United Students Against Sweatshops is currently working, (b) whether or not youcould see yourself joining that campaign, and (c) why you could or could not see yourself participating in the campaign.EXERCISE 10.8Work, Unemployment,and Our ChangingEconomyGo to the website for the U.S. Department of LaborÕs Mass Layoff Statistics page at http://www.bls.gov/mls/home.htm#overview%20htm(http://www.bls.gov/mls/home.htm#overview%20htm) , click on ÒMass Layoffs (Monthly),Ó and read the ÒMass Layoffs Summary.Ó Read the most recentsummary, and answer the following questions:1.   What were the top three reasons (in order) for the most recent mass layoffs?2.   Which metropolitan area was the most affected by the recent mass layoffs?3.   How does the most recent quarterly report on mass layoffs compare with those of the previous 4 years?Now go to http://www.google.com (http://www.google.com) . Search for ÒUnemployment Insurance and [name of your state],Ó and answer the followingquestions:1.   What percentage of their salary do unemployed people receive in unemployment insurance (assuming that they met the eligibility requirementsfor maximum unemployment insurance coverage in your state)? What is the maximum rate?2.   For how long can they collect unemployment insurance?3.   If the head of your household were unemployed, how well do you think the individual could support his or her family on unemploymentinsurance? Elaborate.

EXERCISE 10.9Immigration andCitizenshipSelect two nations outside the United States (one in the Western Hemisphere and one in the Eastern Hemisphere), and go to the U.S. Citizenship andImmigration Services home page at http://www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis (http://www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis) .Write a two-page paper, using the information on the website to Þgure out how you might successfully emigrate from each respective nation to theUnited States. Be sure to include the factors that would ease your path to American citizenship (being a highly skilled worker, being wealthy, having afamily member here, etc.).Conclude your paper by describing what you learned from the exercise and how it affected your perspective on the immigration process. (If you did notlearn anything new, explain why you did not.)DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1.   What role do you think economic globalization plays in legal and illegal immigration to the United States?2.   How do you think the changes in our economic institution (e.g., inßation, fewer jobs that pay a ÒfamilyÓ wage, the growing need for a college education)are affecting the social institution of the family?3.   Why is it in the interest of global North workers to organize with global South workers for higher wages?4.   What families might be most vulnerable to the negative impacts of the Great Recession? Why? Do you feel that your family has been affected by therecession? If not, why not? If yes, why and in what ways?5.   Which theoretical perspective, conßict theory or functionalism, would you choose to best make sense of how the economic institution operates in U.S.society? Why?6.   Imagine that the institution of the family suddenly disappeared. How might U.S. society be different without this primary institution? Do you think U.S.society could survive without it? Why or why not?7.   If you marry or begin a domestic partnership, do you think you will share domestic chores equally with your spouse? Why or why not? Be sure todiscuss how your gender socialization, your family of origin, and your place in the economic institution affect your answer. Or if you are already marriedor have begun a domestic partnership, how do these factors affect whether or not you share domestic chores equally?SUGGESTIONS FOR SPECIFIC ACTIONS1.   Research the family-related personnel policies at your college. Do you think they provide adequate beneÞts for employees who must care for a sickfamily member? If not, come up with a reasonable suggestion for policy reform, and work with your student government leaders to present your ideas(and advocate for them) to the administration.2.   Research the policies that your college has for providing beneÞts to partners of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or intersexed (LGBTI) employees.Are they the same as for the partners of heterosexual employees? If not, why not? How do your Þndings, in either case, reßect the values of your college(your institution!) and of the greater society? If you Þnd inequalities and believe that they need to be changed, what steps would you take to ensure thatthe partners of all employees receive equal beneÞts?3a.   Review the information on the U.S. Immigration and Customs EnforcementÕs Students and Exchange Visitors webpage athttp://www.ice.gov/sevis/students (http://www.ice.gov/sevis/students) .3b.   Interview the administrator on your campus who is in charge of international students. Ask him or her how your school assists international studentsthrough the process of becoming students on your campus.3c.   Interview Þve international students at your school. Ask them about the steps they went through to become students there. Be sure to note anydifferences in their experiences and why these differences may have occurred (the year of their matriculation, the nation from which they came, theireconomic status, etc.).3d.   Use this information to create a resource for international students that could be put on your school website (if approved by your college or universityadministration).4.   Research the salaries and beneÞts of the cafeteria workers and custodial professionals on your campus. Do they receive a living wage? Do some researchto learn more about how students on other campuses have advocated for cafeteria workers and custodial professionals and how you might do so as well.As a starting place, you can Þnd information at www.jobswithjustice.org (http://www.jobswithjustice.org) .5.   Go to Free The ChildrenÕs website at http://www.freethechildren.com (http://www.freethechildren.com) . After browsing through it, read the informationprovided on child labor (http://we.freethechildren.com/learn-facts?issue=child-labour (http://we.freethechildren.com/learn-facts?issue=child-labour) ).One of the most powerful ways to Þght against child labor is to ensure that children have schools to attend and the resources (funds for school fees,books, uniforms, etc.) to afford to go to school. Now that you know about child labor and how important education is, you can start a campaign to raisemoney to build schools in regions known for child labor. Check out the resources athttp://www.freethechildren.com/whatwedo/international/aav/education (http://www.freethechildren.com/whatwedo/international/aav/education) , andbegin a school-building campaign at your college.Please go to this bookÕs website at http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e (http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e) to Þnd further civic engagement

opportunities, resources, peer-reviewed articles, and updated web links related to this chapter.NOTES1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_63#rnote1) .   Of course, some students leave high school and join the militaryinstitution. Many do this in the hope of receiving the training and experience they need to succeed economically once they leave the military.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_64#rnote2) .   The Internal Revenue Service now recognizes same-sex marriages.3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_65#rnote3) .   For example, the city of Bangor, Maine, passed legislation stating, ÒAllclothes available on local store shelves should be made according to established international standards of ethical productionÓ (see para. 2 athttp://ihscslnews.org/view_article.php?id=127 (http://ihscslnews.org/view_article.php?id=127) ).4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_65#rnote4) .   For more information about the campaign, go to the WRC website athttp://workersrights.org (http://workersrights.org) .REFERENCESBernhardt, A., Milkman, R., Theodore, N., Heckathorn, D., Auer, M., DeFilippis, J., . . .  Spiller, M. (2009). Broken laws, unprotected workers: Violations ofemployment and labor laws in AmericaÕs cities. Retrieved from http://www.nelp.org/page/-/brokenlaws/BrokenLawsReport2009.pdf?nocdn=1 (http://www.nelp.org/page/-/brokenlaws/BrokenLawsReport2009.pdf?nocdn=1)Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2013, April 26). Employment characteristics of familiesÑ2012. Retrieved fromhttp://www.bls.gov/news.release/archives/famee_04262013.pdf (http://www.bls.gov/news.release/archives/famee_04262013.pdf)Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2013, February 19). National marriage and divorce rate trends. Retrieved fromhttp://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nvss/marriage_divorce_tables.htm (http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nvss/marriage_divorce_tables.htm)Collins, R. (1980). WeberÕs last theory of capitalism: A systematization. American Sociological Review, 45, 925Ð942.Coontz, S. (1992). The way we never were: American families and the nostalgia trap. New York, NY: Basic Books.Coontz, S. (2005a, May 1). For better, for worse: Marriage means something different now. The Washington Post. Retrieved fromhttp://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/04/30/AR2005043000108_pf.html (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/04/30/AR2005043000108_pf.html)Coontz, S. (2005b). Marriage, a history: From obedience to intimacy, or how love conquered marriage. New York, NY: Viking.Eidelson, J. (2011, Aug. 5). Union victory at Virginia IKEA plant: Resistance grows against race-to-bottom wages (AlterNet). Retrieved fromhttp://www.alternet.org/story/151909/union_victory_at_virginia_ikea_plant%3A_resistance_grows_against_race-to-bottom_wages(http://www.alternet.org/story/151909/union_victory_at_virginia_ikea_plant%3A_resistance_grows_against_race-to-bottom_wages)Engels, F. (1942). The origin of the family, private property, and the state (F. L. Morgan, Trans.). New York, NY: International. (Original work published1884)FAO, IFAD, & WFP. (2013). The state of food insecurity in the world 2013. The multiple dimensions of food security. Rome, Italy: Food and AgricultureOrganisation. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3434e/i3434e.pdf (http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3434e/i3434e.pdf)FlorCruz, J. A. (2012, June 12). SchoolÕs out: Chinese graduates Þght to be heard (CNN.com (http://CNN.com) ). Retrieved fromhttp://www.cnn.com/2012/06/12/world/asia/china-college-graduates-ßorcruz/index.html (http://www.cnn.com/2012/06/12/world/asia/china-college-graduates-ßorcruz/index.html)Fry, R. (2014, February 6). New census data show more Americans are tying the knot, but mostly itÕs the college-educated (Pew Research Center). Retrievedfrom http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/02/06/new-census-data-show-more-americans-are-tying-the-knot-but-mostly-its-the-college-educated/ (http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/02/06/new-census-data-show-more-americans-are-tying-the-knot-but-mostly-its-the-college-educated/)Fuentes-Nieva, R., & Galasso, N. (2014, January 20). Working for the few: Political capture and economic inequality (Oxfam BrieÞng Paper 178). Retrievedfrom http://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/Þles/bp-working-for-few-political-capture-economic-inequality-200114-en.pdf(http://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/Þles/bp-working-for-few-political-capture-economic-inequality-200114-en.pdf)Jamieson, D. (2012, January 19). Ikea workers in Maryland vote to unionize. The HufÞngton Post. Retrieved fromhttp://www.hufÞngtonpost.com/2012/01/19/ikea-workers-maryland-unionize_n_1217391.html (http://www.hufÞngtonpost.com/2012/01/19/ikea-workers-maryland-unionize_n_1217391.html)Lane, L., & BŠck-Wiklund, M. (2011). Perceived work-life conßict among Swedish dual-earner families. In E. Addis, P. de Villota, F. Degavre, & J. Eriksen(Eds.), Gender and well being: The role of institutions (pp. 221Ð240). London, England: Ashgate.Levy, J. (2014, April 7). In U.S., uninsured rate lowest since 2008 (Gallup). Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/168248/uninsured-rate-lowest-2008.aspx (http://www.gallup.com/poll/168248/uninsured-rate-lowest-2008.aspx)Machiavelli, N. (2001). The prince (Vol. 36, Pt. 1; N. H. Thomson, Trans.). New York, NY: Collier. (Original work published 1909)Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Osterman, M. J. K., Curtin, S. C., & Mathews, T. J. (2013, December 30). Births: Final data for 2012 (National Vital StatisticsReport, Vol. 62, No. 9). Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr62/nvsr62_09.pdf#table16(http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr62/nvsr62_09.pdf#table16)Marx, K. (1970). A contribution to the critique of political economy (M. Dobbs, Trans.). New York, NY: International. (Original work published 1859)Mishel, L., & Sabadish, N. (2013, June 26). CEO pay in 2012 was extraordinarily high relative to typical workers and other high earners (Economic PolicyInstitute). Retrieved from http://www.epi.org/publication/ceo-pay-2012-extraordinarily-high/ (http://www.epi.org/publication/ceo-pay-2012-extraordinarily-high/)Noss, A. (2013, September). Household income: 2012 (American Community Survey Briefs). Retrieved fromhttps://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acsbr12-02.pdf (https://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acsbr12-02.pdf)Odeh, L. E. (2010). A comparative analysis of global North and global South economies. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 12(3), 338Ð348.

Retrieved from http://www.jsd-africa.com/Jsda/V12No3_Summer2010_A/PDF/A%20Comparative%20Analysis%20of%20Global%20North%20and%20Global%20South%20Economies%20(Odeh (http://www.jsd-africa.com/Jsda/V12No3_Summer2010_A/PDF/A%20Comparative%20Analysis%20of%20Global%20North%20and%20Global%20South%20Economies%20(Odeh)).pdfPew Research Center. (2012, April 19). A gender reversal on career aspirations. Retrieved from http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2012/04/19/a-gender-reversal-on-career-aspirations (http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2012/04/19/a-gender-reversal-on-career-aspirations)Phelps, G., & Crabtree, S. (2013, December 23). More than one in Þve worldwide living in extreme poverty (Gallup World). Retrieved fromhttp://www.gallup.com/poll/166565/one-Þve-worldwide-living-extreme-poverty.aspx (http://www.gallup.com/poll/166565/one-Þve-worldwide-living-extreme-poverty.aspx)Plumer, B. (2013, May). HereÕs why 1.2 billion people still donÕt have access to electricity. Washington Post. Retrieved fromhttp://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/05/29/heres-why-1-2-billion-people-still-dont-have-access-to-electricity/(http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/05/29/heres-why-1-2-billion-people-still-dont-have-access-to-electricity/)Popper, N. (2011, April 10). IkeaÕs U.S. factory churns out unhappy workers. Retrieved from http://articles.latimes.com/2011/apr/10/business/la-Þ-ikea-union-20110410 (http://articles.latimes.com/2011/apr/10/business/la-Þ-ikea-union-20110410)Resnikoff, N. (2013, October 30). AmericaÕs new hunger crisis (MSNBC.com (http://MSNBC.com) ). Retrieved from http://www.msnbc.com/all/americas-new-hunger-crisis (http://www.msnbc.com/all/americas-new-hunger-crisis)Severson, K., & Hu, W. (2013, November 7). Cut in food stamps forces hard choices on poor. The New York Times. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/08/us/cut-in-food-stamps-forces-hard-choices-on-poor.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0(http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/08/us/cut-in-food-stamps-forces-hard-choices-on-poor.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0)Stutzman, J., & Mendes, E. (2013, July 17). In U.S., single-parent households struggle more to buy food (Gallup). Retrieved fromhttp://www.gallup.com/poll/163544/single-parent-households-struggle-buy-food.aspx (http://www.gallup.com/poll/163544/single-parent-households-struggle-buy-food.aspx)Worker Rights Consortium. (2013). About us. Retrieved from http://www.workersrights.org/about/as.asp (http://www.workersrights.org/about/as.asp)World Health Organization, & UNICEF. (2014). Progress on drinking water and sanitation: 2014 update. Retrieved fromhttp://www.wssinfo.org/Þleadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP_report_2014_webEng.pdf(http://www.wssinfo.org/Þleadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP_report_2014_webEng.pdf)

S11Social Institutions, ContinuedEducation, Government, and Religionhould students in U.S. public schools be required to Òpledge allegiance to the ßag of the United States of America and to the Republic for which itstands, one nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for allÓ?1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_72#note1) This questionreveals the connection among educational, political, and religious institutions in the United States. How is our nation connected to God? Which God? WhoseGod? Are you less of an American if you donÕt believe in God? These questions have been debated by politicians, religious leaders, and educators across theUnited States. In this chapter, we examine the institutions of education, government, and religion and their relationships to one another and to the otherprimary institutions in U.S. society.

11.1 Educational InstitutionsEducational institutions teach young members of society the basic and (in some cases) advanced skills needed to function effectively in our society. In turn,educated citizens enable societies to run smoothly and to become more technologically advanced, more productive, and more prosperous. The educationallevel of a nationÕs population is directly related to its level of income equality and overall economic health.2(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_72#note2) As other key institutions in society change, the functions of the educational system must adjustaccordingly. For example, as economies change, so do the skills needed by citizens and those taught in the educational systems. As institutions becomeincreasingly complex and bureaucratized, they need an increasingly well-educated workforce. As Max Weber (1970) pointed out, ÒTrained expertness isincreasingly indispensable for modern bureaucraciesÓ (p. 240).A 2013 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) study shows, however, that the United States has fallen behind most otherdeveloped nations in teaching its population the technical and mathematical skills needed in the workplace today and is only average in literacy. The tests, inliteracy, basic math, and Òproblem solving in technology-rich environments,Ó were given to people of ages 16 to 65 in 22 OECD nations, Cyprus, and theRussian Federation. Young Americans scored lower than older Americans on the tests, and test takers in Japan and Finland earned the highest scores on allthree tests (OECD, 2013; PŽrez-Peňa, 2013).There were also more high and more low scores among American test takers than among those from other nations. So it appears that the U.S. educationsystem is polarized, with a large divide between those at the top and those at the bottom, and with those in the middle learning fewer skills than students frommost other developed nations. This does not bode well for the economic or social health of the United States or its individual residents. As the OECD (2013)report notes, ÒIf there is one central message emerging from this new Survey of Adult Skills, it is that what people know and what they can do with what theyknow has a major impact on their life chancesÓ (p. 6). Educational institutions must teach students information and how to use that information in the modernworkplace, and they must do so for all citizens and not just those at the top of the educational ladder.Educational institutions are also connected in a variety of ways to the institution of government. Those who score higher on the OECD Survey of Adult Skillsare also more likely to trust others, engage in volunteer activities, believe that they have an impact on political processes, and be employed and make above-average salaries (OECD, 2013). Schools teach students how government functions and their obligations as citizens to participate in public life. An educatedcitizenry also provides the skills and brainpower a nation needs in an increasingly competitive global society. To provide such a workforce, our educationalsystem must be effective and properly funded.State and local governments supply most of the funding for public schools. States provide 43.5% of the funding, local communities 44%, and the federalgovernment 12.5% (Dixon, 2012). In most states, primary and secondary public schools receive funding based largely on local property taxes. Both state andfederal governments create educational goals. State governments and education experts across the nation developed the Common Core Standards, which 45states and Washington, D.C., have now begun to implement. For the Þrst time, almost every state will expect students to achieve the same standard ofachievement in English and mathematics. In recent years, the federal government has also played a larger role in regulating the function and operation ofpublic schools. For example, the federally mandated No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) established, for the Þrst time, test-focused goals andtimetables that public schools must adhere to in order to receive federal funding. The NCLB Act came under criticism for narrowing the curriculum, loweringstandards to increase the numbers of passing scores, and focusing on test scores rather than overall educational growth (U.S. Department of Education, 2011).In response to this critique, the secretary of education in the Obama administration, Arne Duncan, has granted states ßexibility on NCLB requirements Òinexchange for rigorous and comprehensive state-developed plans designed to improve educational outcomes for all students, close achievement gaps, increaseequity, and improve the quality of instructionÓ (U.S. Department of Education, n.d., para. 1).Despite the Common Core Standards and the NCLB Act, though, most of what occurs within our schools is still determined or administered by localgovernment. School boards, whose members are locally elected or appointed, oversee the operation of schools and create goals at the local level that areconsistent with state and federal laws. Even private schools, although they do have greater freedom in determining the curriculum, are bound to abide by U.S.laws, such as those that protect against discrimination. In short, government Þngerprints can be found at all levels of the institution of education, in schoolcurricula, school buildings, and teaching approaches.All three of the institutions examined in this chapterÑeducation, government, and religionÑare evident when we look at the NCLB Act,3(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_72#note3) and the school boards that are working to put this legislation into action. For example, one aspectof this federal law allows religious organizations to receive federal education grants to run after-school programs for students in the public education system.The merits of forming or sustaining other connections between religious organizations and public schools are fought over, in many areas of the country,among local school board members and their supporters.One of the most heated school board battles has centered on whether to teach Òintelligent designÓ or evolution in science classes. Proponents of the faith-based idea of intelligent designÑthe notion that some intelligent, supernatural force was responsible for the creation of the worldÑhave tried to inßuence thecomposition of school boards in their efforts to have this belief represented in the public school curriculum. The elected State Board of Education in Kansas,for example, changed that stateÕs science curriculum to include the Christian notion of intelligent design in science classes alongside the teaching ofevolution, whereas residents of Dover, Pennsylvania, voted to oust all eight of their local school board members after the board proposed to do the same thingthere.4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_72#note4)In 2013, a physics professor at Ball State University who had been teaching intelligent design in his classes was prohibited from doing so. In making thedecision, the president of the university, Jo Ann Gora, said,Teaching intelligent design as a scientiÞc theory is not a matter of academic freedomÑit is an issue of academic integrity. The scientiÞc community hasoverwhelmingly rejected intelligent design as a scientiÞc theory. Therefore, it does not represent the best standards of the discipline as determined bythe scholars of those disciplines. Said simply, to allow intelligent design to be presented to science students as a valid scientiÞc theory would violate the

academic integrity of the course as it would fail to accurately represent the consensus of science scholars. (Quote found in Kingkade, 2013)Science, rather than religion, must determine what is taught in science classes at Ball State University.Fundamentalist religious sources, however, have had a tremendous impact on what is taught in high schools. A 2011 poll of high school science teachersrevealed that just 28% consistently follow the National Research CouncilÕs recommendations Òto describe straightforwardly the evidence for evolution andexplain the ways in which it is a unifying theme in all of biologyÓ (Bakalar, 2011, para. 2), and 13% teach their students through the lens of creationism (e.g.,intelligent design). The other 60% tend to teach both evolution and creationism and/or try to avoid the topic of evolution (which is at the heart of all biology!)in order to avoid controversy (Bakalar, 2011). According to a 2013 Pew Research Center poll, just 60% of Americans believe that Òhumans and other livingthings have evolved over timeÓ (para. 1). No doubt, this stems in large part from the fact that so few people learn the facts about evolution in their high schoolbiology class.Many young people have joined the effort to move religion out of science classrooms. For example, one high school student from Louisiana, Zack Kopplin,used his senior project to start a drive to repeal the 2008 Louisiana Science Education Act, which allows for the teaching of creationism in Louisiana publicschools. Now a college student at Rice University, Zack is widely known as a highly respected advocate for science. ZackÕs efforts have been endorsed by 78Nobel laureates, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the New Orleans City Council (Dvorsky, 2013; Quenqua, 2013).

11.2 GovernmentThe U.S. Constitution sets the framework for governance in the United States. As anyone who has ever taken a U.S. government or history course (orwatched Schoolhouse Rock) knows, the Preamble to the Constitution describes what the founders of this nation hoped to gain from establishing theirgovernment under the Constitution.We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the commondefense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for theUnited States of America. (See a transcript of the Constitution of the United States at http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution.html(http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution.html) .)As the Preamble indicates, the government regulates a wide range of interactions and processes in our society. Government is responsible for the smoothfunctioning of society. This broad mandate includes ensuring public safety, from personal safety in neighborhoods, to making sure that levees are properlybuilt and maintained to protect citizens from ßooding,5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_72#note5) to overseeing public commerce(everything from an efÞcient transportation system to stable Þnancial markets), to running fair and democratic elections. The government, in short, isresponsible for overseeing the well-being and social welfare of the nationÕs citizens.However, the majority of Americans do not actually exercise the power they have to elect their governmental representatives. Many do not even know whotheir elected representatives are, never mind whether or not they are actually Òpromot[ing] the general welfare.Ó Just over half of all Americans who areeligible to vote exercise that right in presidential elections. Far fewer tend to vote in nonpresidential, local elections. Less than 40% of eligible voters vote innonpresidential-year state elections (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2012), and even fewer tend to vote in elections when only local government representativesor initiatives are on the ballot.Many Americans feel disconnected from the political process and turned off by the huge amounts of money spent on the campaigns they see covered ontelevision. However, unlike national or statewide elections, which involve millions of dollars and depend in great part on who can raise the most money, localelections are more open to people who commit the resources of time and energy to cultivating local contacts and to urging people personally and in smallgroups to vote for them. While many state and national politicians spend much of their energy focused on potential large donors, most local political hopefulsspend their energies trying to persuade community leaders to convince their own followers to vote for them. Therefore, whereas organized money is moreimportant in state and federal elections, in local elections, organized people can propel someone into ofÞce. However, in all cases, those running for electionor reelection to political posts can safely ignore people who do not involve themselves in politics and who are not likely to vote.

11.3 Religious InstitutionsApproximately 75% of Americans identify as Christian. The term Christian encompasses a plethora of religions, ranging from mainstream Protestant toEvangelical Protestant to Catholic. Following the umbrella group of Christians, the second largest group related to religion is the unafÞliated. The percentageof unafÞliated has doubled in the past couple of decades and continues to rise, with a full one third of adults under 30 falling into this category (Table 11.1(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_69#tab11.1) ; Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, 2012).Analyses of religious institutions differ rather dramatically among the three primary theoretical perspectives in sociology. These theories help us understandthe different roles religions play in society, how religions adapt to changes in society, and how they inßuence society and the individuals in it. It is importantto note that sociologists are interested in the interaction between religion and society rather than in the veracity of the teachings of a particular religion.Table 11.1  Religious AfÞliation in the United StatesSOURCE: Gallup (2012).Following DurkheimÕs famous writings in this area, functionalists maintain that religion serves several functions for society: It unites its followers, helpsestablish order by providing a ÒcorrectÓ way of living, and gives people a sense of meaning and purpose in their lives. Of course, this particular functionalanalysis of religion assumes that there is only one religion in the society and does not consider societies with multiple religions, such as the United States.However, even in societies such as the United States, where there are multiple religions, those who belong to religious organizations feel more positivelyabout their society and their ability to inßuence it, are more trusting of others, and spend more of their time in organized groups in their community than thosewho do not belong to religious organizations. Religious organizations provide volunteer opportunities for members and socialize them into a lifestyle thatincludes volunteering and active involvement in their communities (Jansen, 2011; Johnston, 2013).Conßict theorists argue that religions tend to distract oppressed people and prevent them from concentrating on the inequities of their societies. Marx oncedescribed religion as Òthe opiate of the peopleÓ (as quoted in Bottomore, 1964, p. 27). He argued that religion helps maintain the status quo by encouragingworkers to ignore their sufferings here on Earth, thus acting as an ÒopiateÓ by keeping the oppressed subdued and uninterested in rising up against theiroppressors. The clergy, Þnancially supported by the owning class, counsel their followers not to protest the inequality that led to their poor conditions butrather to be docile and ÒgoodÓ here on Earth so that they may receive their reward for their earthly suffering and forbearance in Heaven.6(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_72#note6)Symbolic interactionists point out that religions are socially constructed, created, and re-created by followers through the use of symbols and rituals. Theyagree with functionalists that religion gives order to our lives. However, they also stress that individuals have agency (the ability to create and changeinstitutions) and play active and consistent roles in the design and maintenance of their religion. Just as societies change and people create, adjust, and discardsymbols, religious institutions change as well. For example, the change in symbols and attitudes within the Catholic Church brought about by the SecondVatican Council (1962Ð1965) changed the outlook of the church and many of its rules. The language of the Mass changed from Latin to the tongue of theparishioners, the priest no longer faced away from his parishioners when saying Mass, and guitars and folk groups replaced many organs and choirs,respectively. These symbolic shifts changed how members of the church related to one another and saw their roles within the church. Just changing certainsymbols helped foster a rise in status of the Catholic laity and created a Catholic Church that Catholics who lived 100 years ago would scarcely recognize.

11.4 The Relationships Among Educational, Governmental, and Religious InstitutionsLike all other major institutions in society, educational, governmental, and religious institutions must Þnd a way to coexist. Depending on oneÕs theoreticalperspective, the grounds of this coexistence can vary widely. For example, functionalists maintain that they can cooperate for the good of the whole society,whereas conßict theorists argue that the educational, governmental, religious, and family institutions merely carry out the desires of those who control theeconomic institution.No matter the theoretical perspective, it is clear that social institutions must interact with one another in a variety of ways. However, how they interact withone another differs from one society to the next. For example, the inßuence of religion on government and educational systems varies widely from society tosociety. The laws of some societies are based on religious doctrines. In other societies, religions are not even ofÞcially acknowledged by the government.

11.5 The Relationship Among Religion, Government, and Education: Comparing the United States andFranceDue in part to the fact that there was no one dominant religious organization at the time of the founding of the United States, the First Amendment to the U.S.Constitution states that ÒCongress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.Ó There is an inherenttension between the two clauses in this phrase. Some people stress the separation between church and state, whereas others emphasize the First AmendmentÕsdeclaration that government cannot prohibit the exercise of religion.Although there is no ofÞcially state-sponsored religion in the United States, there are obvious examples of the inßuence of religion on U.S. government. Fromthe words ÒIn God We TrustÓ on our money to the routine inclusion of Biblical scripture in speeches by our presidents, the imagery prevalent throughout theUnited States is Christian. France, on the other hand, has a constitution that does not even mention religious differences among its people. The French peopleare free to practice whatever religion they would like to, but they must do so in a private manner. In the United States, religious organizations are given tax-exempt status and are frequently recognized and honored by political leaders, whereas the French governmentÕs only ofÞcial relationship with religiousorganizations is to make sure they do not infringe on the liberty of others. Unlike in the United States, where some advocate bringing back compulsory prayerin schools and where there is an ongoing debate about requiring students to say a pledge that includes the word God in it, France expressly forbids religion inits public schools. In keeping with French laws that prohibit public displays of religion, not only are students forbidden to pray publicly, but they also may notwear religious garb (such as head coverings) in school, even if their religion mandates that they wear such things in public.Although U.S. law prohibits the government from endorsing or sanctioning one religion over another, it does not in any way prevent citizens from invokingreligious grounds as a basis for their voting or other political participation, even to the point of forming national social movements to change the law. Forexample,in the 1830s, temperance and antislavery [movements] mobilized hundreds of thousands of Americans in a wave of confessional protests. In theseprotests, men and women gathered together to bear witness against what they deemed as the sins of drinking and slavery to pledge fellowship withreform societies, and to demand that religious and civil institutions repent. They were met with Þerce resistance, and much of it was violent. (Young,2002, p. 661)However, the goals of both of the movements mentioned above were eventually adopted as law. What is signiÞcant here is that Christian activists, believingthat drinking or slavery was morally wrong, led movements to change the laws concerning drinking and slavery but not to change the laws concerning therole of religion in society.In the United States, public schools are educational institutions mandated by law, funded and regulated by government, and answerable to all citizens. Is itpossible to have religious practices within a public school system without violating the laws mandating the separation of church and state? Consider the casedescribed in Exercise 11.4 below.Of course, not all those who say that they are members of a religion actually attend religious services. As noted in Chapter 5 (ch0005.xlink.html) , anestimated 37% of Americans attend religious gatherings regularly (once a week or more), far more than most Europeans (The Economist, 2010; Manchin,2004; Newport, 2010). On the other hand, it is possible to believe in a God or Universal Spirit to whom you feel connected without attending religiousservices. For example, while fewer than 4 out of 10 Americans attend weekly religious services (Newport, 2010) and 20% are not afÞliated with a religiousorganization (Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, 2012), 92% say that they believe in God (Newport, 2011).

11.6 The Hijab DebateThe debate about religious garb in schools reveals how the relationships among government, religion, and education vary from society to society and overtime. As noted above, since 2004, France has prohibited all religious forms of dress, including hijabs (head scarves worn by Muslim girls and women), inschools. In 2011, Azerbaijan imposed a similar ruling, as increasing numbers of its citizens began to embrace Islam after the nation emerged from the forcedsecularism of the Soviet era (Abbasov, 2011). Meanwhile, in Saudi Arabia and Iran, women and girls must wear the hijab or face punishment from thegovernment for not doing so (Talley, 2011), and Turkey has recently lifted its ban on the hijab in state institutions (Reuters, 2013). In each of these cases,government ofÞcials recognize schools as the socializing agents they are.In states such as Saudi Arabia and Iran, where religious leaders have a strong inßuence over government, schools are used to promote the dominant religion.Likewise, the recent lifting of the hijab ban in public institutions in Turkey reßects the Islamist-based political party now in power in that nation. However, innations with secular governments, such as France and Azerbaijan, that fear the rising inßuence of religion in society, schools are used to dampen the inßuenceof religion. Meanwhile, in the United States, with our declaration of religious freedom and separation of church and state, we continue to debate whethercreationism can or should be taught in public schools. As these examples illustrate, the social institutions of religion, education, and governmentÑlike allmajor social institutionsÑare interdependent and continually interact with and inßuence one another in every society.Sociologist in Action: Tim WoodsDr. Tim Woods grew up in a small farming community in Oklahoma. As an undergraduate majoring in sociology at Southwestern Oklahoma StateUniversity, he joined a group of two sociology professors and a handful of students who volunteered at a local prison. In the prison, the faculty andstudents served as associates and advisers to the LifersÕ Club, an organization of prisoners who were serving life sentences. While the prison volunteerprogram had no formal ties to the sociology curriculum, this experience left a lasting impression on WoodsÕs work and teaching.Interacting with the inmates forced Woods to question some fundamental ideas he held, especially those concerning the roles of individual responsibilityand self-efÞcacy. A key event concerned a very religious inmate Woods had befriended. While many inmates joked that no one in the prison was guilty,this particular inmate vociferously and continually proclaimed his innocence, explaining that God had sent him to prison to help the other inmates. Waryof the inmateÕs stories, Woods understood these proclamations to be psychological dissonance, either a denial of individual responsibility or mentalillness. However, some 2 years after he left the prison for graduate school, Woods received word that new evidence had been discovered establishing theinmateÕs innocence. He was released from prison. This became an important example to Woods of the real-world connections among social structure,power, and the lived experiences of individuals.Dr. Woods is now the chair of the Department of Political Science and Sociology at Manchester Community College in Manchester, Connecticut.Wishing that his students have the same type of opportunity to learn and contribute to their community that he had had at the prison, Woods beganembedding community engagement into the formal coursework in sociology. He wanted students to develop a sociological imagination through theirinteraction with the community. As they served in and reßected on life in their community, students began to connect Þrst their own and then othersÕpersonal troubles to social issues in their community and the larger world. This experience also advanced studentsÕ understanding of broadersociological concepts and theories by visibly connecting those concepts to their own lived experiences and those of others in the community.Initially, WoodsÕs students simply volunteered at a variety of community nonproÞt organizations and related their experiences there to the coursematerial. Over time, Woods and his studentsÕ roles grew from merely volunteering to publicly advocating for structural community change. Theirsociological imagination enabled them to recognize the need for and potential of collective action to address the social needs of the community. Joiningforces with the local homeless shelter, religious organizations, and town ofÞcials, they helped establish the Manchester Initiative for Supportive Housingand have taken a leading role in advocating for supportive housing as a long-term solution to homelessness. Their strategy for community awareness hasbecome a topic of discussion among supportive housing advocates as far from Connecticut as California.Woods believes that community colleges provide a unique opportunity for sociologists interested in teaching about and engaging in public sociologyand community change. Unlike most students in 4-year colleges and universities, community college students are more strongly embedded in theircommunities, where they live, work, worship, and go to college, and as a result, they have long-term stakes in the community. While it is certainlypossible for professors and students at 4-year schools to make a positive impact on the communities surrounding their campus, they must often makeextra efforts to know and be accepted by members of the local community. Tim WoodsÕs students, similar to Jane Addams and the other Hull Houseresearchers and activists, live in the community they are trying to improve. Also, community college students are usually more representative of thediversity (in terms of race and ethnicity, class, age, religion, etc.) that one Þnds in a community. These factors increase the legitimacy and success ofstudent projects in the community and make the connection between classroom and community more authentic and enduring.EXERCISE 11.1How Are Your LocalSchools Funded?Find the ofÞcial webpage of your local school board by going to an Internet search engine (e.g., Google.com (http://Google.com) , Yahoo.com(http://Yahoo.com) , etc.) and searching for the name of your town or city and the phrase Òschool board.Ó Write a one- to two-page paper that answers thefollowing questions:

1.   How are your local schools funded?2.   Has funding increased or decreased over the past few years (and why)?3.   How do people become school board members? Are they elected? Are they appointed (and if so, by whom)?4.   Are the school board members nonpartisan, or are they afÞliated with a political party? If they are politically afÞliated, how many areDemocrats? How many are Republicans? Any independents or other party afÞliations?5.   According to the school board website, what are the key challenges facing your local public schools? How does the board claim to be addressingthese challenges?6.   Now, imagine that you are an ofÞcial member of the school board. What two key challenges do you want to focus on? These may be similar tothe ones that the board has identiÞed, or they may be your own, based on the research you have done. Outline these challenges, and thendescribe several ideas you would suggest to address them. For at least one of these suggestions for change, elaborate on your plan, and discussin detail how your skills as a sociologist can help create this change.EXERCISE 11.2Education for All?Read about the Education for All movement at http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/education-for-all/ (http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/education-for-all/) . Then, go tohttp://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/MDG_FS_2_EN.pdf (http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/MDG_FS_2_EN.pdf) , and read the informationabout inequality in education across the globe. Then, answer the following questions:1.   Why do you think education was established as a basic right under the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights?2.   Why should you care about whether or not people in other nations have access to education?3.   What do you think that you, working with others, can do to promote the goal of universal education by 2015?EXERCISE 11.3How Does YourRepresentative Vote?1.   Go to the website for the U.S. House of Representatives, http://www.house.gov (http://www.house.gov) .2.   Look up your state representative by entering your zip code under ÒFIND YOUR REPRESENTATIVEÓ in the top left corner of the page andclicking on the ÒGOÓ button.3.   When the page opens, click on the representativeÕs name, and look at his or her website by clicking on the pull-down menu ÒRepresentativesÕ Websites AÐZ by last nameÓ at the top of the page.4.   Find information on the positions your representative is taking on Þve issues.5.   Answer the following questions:a.   Do you agree with the votes? (In other words, do they represent you?) Why or why not?b.   Will you vote in the next (i) local, (ii) state, and (iii) national elections? Why or why not?c.   Does reading about how your representative has voted recently make you more or less interested in voting for or against him or her in the nextelection? Why?d.   If you do not agree with his or her vote on one or more issues, what actions can you (as a citizen) take to express your dissatisfaction?e.   What actions can you take toward having your representative vote more to your liking on future issues?EXERCISE 11.4School Sports andPrayerThe Bill of Rights InstituteÕs website (http://billofrightsinstitute.org/religiousliberty/cases (http://billofrightsinstitute.org/religiousliberty/cases) ) lists thelandmark Supreme Court cases that deal with the tension between the separation of church and state and freedom to worship clauses in the FirstAmendment. Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe (2000) is one of the more recent decisions. For this case, Justice Stevens wrote what followsbelow for the majority opinion of the Court (three justices dissented).7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_72#note7)Prior to 1995, a student elected as Santa Fe High SchoolÕs student council chaplain delivered a prayer over the public address system before eachhome varsity football game. Respondents, Mormon and Catholic students or alumni and their mothers, Þled a suit challenging this practice and othersunder the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.While the suit was pending, the petitioner school district (referred to as ÒDistrictÓ below) adopted a different policy, which authorizes two studentelections, the Þrst to determine whether ÒinvocationsÓ should be delivered at games and the second to select the spokesperson to deliver them. After

the students held elections authorizing such prayers and selecting a spokesperson, the district court entered an order modifying the policy to permitonly nonsectarian, nonproselytizing prayer. The Þfth circuit court held that, even as modiÞed by the district court, the football prayer policy wasinvalid.Held: The DistrictÕs policy permitting student-led, student-initiated prayer at football games violates the Establishment Clause. Pp. 9Ð26.The CourtÕs analysis is guided by the principles endorsed in Lee v. Weisman, 505 U.S. 577. There, in concluding that a prayer delivered by a rabbi ata graduation ceremony violated the Establishment Clause, the Court held that, at a minimum, the Constitution guarantees that government may notcoerce anyone to support or participate in religion or its exercise, or otherwise act in a way that establishes a state religion or religious faith, or tendsto do so, id., at 587. The District argues unpersuasively that these principles are inapplicable because the policyÕs messages are private studentspeech, not public speech. The delivery of a message such as the invocation hereÑon school property, at school-sponsored events, over the schoolÕspublic address system, by a speaker representing the student body, under the supervision of school faculty, and pursuant to a school policy thatexplicitly and implicitly encourages public prayerÑis not properly characterized as ÒprivateÓ speech. (Seehttp://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0530_0290_ZS.html(http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0530_0290_ZS.html) )1.   Do you agree with this opinion? Why or why not?2.   What might a symbolic interactionist say about the use of symbols by those carrying out these prayers? What do these symbols convey to thestudents and other fans attending the games? In particular, what do they imply about the appropriateness of public praying at football games?3.   What might a conßict theorist say about the CourtÕs decision?EXERCISE 11.5The Role of Religion inthe Lives ofIndividualsSurvey 10 people about their religion. In the survey, include questions about (a) their religious afÞliation (if they have one), (b) how often they go toreligious services, and (c) if they think their belief in God or a Higher Power guides their actions during an average day.Then interview them, asking them to provide examples to illustrate their answers. Compare the results of your surveys and interviews. Were theÞndings consistent? Why or why not? How might a symbolic interactionist interpret your Þndings? Why?EXERCISE 11.6Racism in a ÒColor-BlindÓ FranceSince the 2005 riots and more recent episodes of public racism, some French citizens have questioned the governmentÕs practice of ignoring racial andreligious differences among French citizens and advocated for the establishment of racial and religious statistical categories so that the government candiscern patterns of discrimination.Listen to ÒDiverse Marseille Spared in French RiotsÓ at http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5044219(http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5044219) , and read ÒThe Justice Minister and the Banana: How Racist Is FranceÓ? athttp://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/comment/2013/11/the-justice-minister-and-the-banana-how-racist-is-france.html(http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/comment/2013/11/the-justice-minister-and-the-banana-how-racist-is-france.html) .Write a two- to three-page paper that answers the following questions:1.   What did you learn about the reasons for the 2005 riots in France and French attitudes toward race and religion? How do these differ fromAmerican attitudes?2.   What are three reforms that the French government could enact to diminish the current racial outbreaks in France and prevent riots like those in2005 from breaking out again?3.   What strategies would you use to try to convince the French public to support these reform measures? How would your tactics to garner supportfor these reforms take French attitudes toward race and religion into consideration?EXERCISE 11.7Secularism, Religion,and DemocracyListen to the following stories:ÒHijab Bridges Faith and Fashion for US Muslim WomenÓ at http://www.fashionÞghtingfamine.com/blog/npr-hijab-bridges-faith-and-

fashion-for-us-muslim-women (http://www.fashionÞghtingfamine.com/blog/npr-hijab-bridges-faith-and-fashion-for-us-muslim-women)ÒA Tale of Two U.S. Muslim Women: To Cover or Not?Ó at http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6556263(http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6556263)ÒDebating the Burqa: Sarkozy Proposes BanÓ at http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=106198806(http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=106198806)Then, answer the following questions:1.   What do you believe are the best arguments for supporting a ban on women wearing (a) a hijab or (b) a burqa?2.   What do you believe are the best arguments for allowing women to wear (a) a hijab or (b) a burqa?3.   Which of the arguments you have laid out are the most sociological (taking into account the impact on society as well as on individuals)? Why?4.   Which of the arguments do you agree with most strongly? Why?DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1.   Before you read this chapter, did you know the names of your U.S. senators and representative? Did you know their party afÞliations? Why or why not?Why is it important to know who they are and how they vote?2.   What do you think the purpose of public schools should be? Do you think your education fulÞlled that purpose? Why or why not? Did you go to publicschools to get your primary and secondary education? Why or why not?3.   Do you think religious symbols should be allowed in public schools in the United States? Why or why not?4.   Do you ever wonder why the word God is used so often by public ofÞcials in their public statements? Discuss why you think this happens.5.   Do you think students in U.S. public schools should be required to Òpledge allegiance to the ßag of the United States of America and to the Republic forwhich it stands, one nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for allÓ? Why or why not?6.   Do you think the French government needs to ofÞcially recognize the religious, racial, and ethnic diversity within France? If yes, why? (And how mightthe government go about doing so?) If not, why not?7.   How might you go about studying the inßuence of religion at your school? What methodology would you use to collect your data? What theory wouldyou use to make sense of your data?8.   What role do you think the federal government should play in improving the public education system in the United States? Why? If you think fundingfor schools should be increased, from where do you think the money should come? Why?9.   Describe the relationship between the economic, family, and educational institutions in your own life. What do you think would happen to you if you didnot have access to a college education? How would that lack of access affect your economic position and your ability to support a family?SUGGESTIONS FOR SPECIFIC ACTIONS1.   Go to the website http://www.house.gov (http://www.house.gov) . Find one issue up for debate in the House of Representatives that interests you.Research the issue, and write a letter to your representative to encourage him or her to vote your way.2.   Attend two different types of religious services in your local community. Observe and compare what kinds of people are in positions of authority (theirgender, race, and age). Think about how these different religious groups might inßuence society if they were the ÒofÞcialÓ national religions.3.   Research a religious organization that is working on a social justice issue. Write a two-page essay outlining the scope of the issue, why the organizationis addressing it, and how it is carrying out the campaign (i.e., what methods it is using). Include at least one paragraph analyzing the power that religiousgroups can have in organizing citizens toward a more just society and an additional paragraph that discusses the possible negative consequences ofreligiously motivated social justice. Finally, determine how you can help with the campaign, and follow through with at least one action to do so.Here are some campaigns that might interest you:Bread for the World campaign to end hunger (http://www.bread.org (http://www.bread.org) )Interfaith Worker JusticeÕs campaign against wage theft (http://www.iwj.org/issues/wage-theft (http://www.iwj.org/issues/wage-theft) )MAZONÕs Þght to combat hunger (http://www.mazon.org (http://www.mazon.org) )American Friends Service CommitteeÕs work on justice and peace issues (http://afsc.org/AfricaLifeOverDebt (http://afsc.org/AfricaLifeOverDebt) )Catholic Relief ServicesÕ efforts to Þght AIDS in Africa (http://crs.org (http://crs.org) )These are just a few examples; feel free to come up with your own as well.Please go to this bookÕs website at http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e (http://study.sagepub.com/korgen5e) to Þnd further civic engagement opportunities,resources, peer-reviewed articles, and updated web links related to this chapter.NOTES

1 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_66#rnote1) .   The pledge, originally written in 1892, was amended in 1923, 1924, and1954. The phrase Òunder GodÓ was the most recent addition, added during the Cold War in part to distinguish the United States from the USSR, whichhad outlawed religious practice.2 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_67#rnote2) .   See Gary BeckerÕs article ÒHuman Capital and PovertyÓ at the ActonInstitute website, http://www.acton.org/pub/religion-liberty/volume-8-number-1/human-capital-and-poverty (http://www.acton.org/pub/religion-liberty/volume-8-number-1/human-capital-and-poverty) .3 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_67#rnote3) .   See the federal governmentÕs No Child Left Behind Act website athttp://www.ed.gov/nclb/landing.jhtml (http://www.ed.gov/nclb/landing.jhtml) .4 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_67#rnote4) .   A U.S. district court ruled in 2005 that the school boardÕs decision tomandate the teaching of intelligent design violated the constitutional separation between church and state (see Associated Press, 2005).5 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_68#rnote5) .   The governmentÕs failure to fulÞll this responsibility during and afterHurricane Katrina in 2005 was (and continues to be) painfully displayed. Hundreds of Americans lost their lives, and thousands more lost their homes,livelihoods, and neighborhoods, due to the breach that occurred in the levees protecting New Orleans.6 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_69#rnote6) .   It is important to note that Marx was not exposed to religions that activelypromoted social justice, as many have done in the past century. In fact, in recent years, some religious leaders (such as Liberation Theologians) havebeen accused of being Marxists!7 (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Korgen.3488.18.1/sections/nav_72#rnote7) .   To see the Supreme CourtÕs full opinion for this case, go to the LegalInformation InstituteÕs Supreme Court Collection, found at http://www.oyez.org/cases/1990-1999/1999/1999_99_62 (http://www.oyez.org/cases/1990-1999/1999/1999_99_62) .REFERENCESAbbasov, S. (2011, January 6). Azerbaijan: Hijab ban in schools fuels debate in Baku on role of Islam (EURASIANET.org (http://EURASIANET.org) ).Retrieved from http://www.eurasianet.org/node/62670 (http://www.eurasianet.org/node/62670)Associated Press. (2005, December 20). Judge rules against intelligent design. MSNBC. Retrieved from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10545387(http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10545387)Bakalar, N. (2011, February 7). On evolution, biology teachers stray from lesson plan. The New York Times. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/08/science/08creationism.html?_r=0 (http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/08/science/08creationism.html?_r=0)Bottomore, T. (Trans. & Ed.). (1964). Karl Marx: Early writings. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.Dixon, M. (2012, June). Public education Þnances: 2010 (U.S. Bureau of the Census). Retrieved from http://www2.census.gov/govs/school/10f33pub.pdf(http://www2.census.gov/govs/school/10f33pub.pdf)Dvorsky, G. (2013, January 15). How 19-year-old activist Zack Kopplin is making life hell for Louisiana creationists. Io9. Retrieved fromhttp://io9.com/5976112/how-19-year-old-activist-zack-kopplin-is-making-life-hell-for-louisianas-creationists (http://io9.com/5976112/how-19-year-old-activist-zack-kopplin-is-making-life-hell-for-louisianas-creationists)The Economist. (2010, August 9). EuropeÕs irreligious. Retrieved from http://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2010/08/religious_attendance(http://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2010/08/religious_attendance)Gallup. (2012, December 24). In U.S., 77% identify as Christian. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/159548/identify-christian.aspx(http://www.gallup.com/poll/159548/identify-christian.aspx) .Jansen, J. (2011, December 23). The civic and community engagement of religiously active Americans (Pew Internet & American Life Project). Retrievedfrom http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2011/Social-side-of-religious.aspx?src=prc-headline (http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2011/Social-side-of-religious.aspx?src=prc-headline)Johnston, J. B. (2013). Religion and volunteering over the adult life course. Journal for the ScientiÞc Study of Religion, 52(4), 733Ð752.Kingkade, T. (2013, August 1). Ball State University bans teaching intelligent design in science classes. The HufÞngton Post. Retrieved fromhttp://www.hufÞngtonpost.com/2013/08/01/ball-state-intelligent-design_n_3688857.html (http://www.hufÞngtonpost.com/2013/08/01/ball-state-intelligent-design_n_3688857.html)Manchin, R. (2004, September 21). Religion in Europe: Trust not Þlling the pews (Gallup.com (http://Gallup.com) ). Retrieved fromhttp://www.gallup.com/poll/13117/Religion-Europe-Trust-Filling-Pews.aspx (http://www.gallup.com/poll/13117/Religion-Europe-Trust-Filling-Pews.aspx)Newport, F. (2010, June 25). AmericansÕ church attendance inches up in 2010 (Gallup.com (http://Gallup.com) ). Retrieved fromhttp://www.gallup.com/poll/141044/americans-church-attendance-inches-2010.aspx (http://www.gallup.com/poll/141044/americans-church-attendance-inches-2010.aspx)Newport, F. (2011, June 3). More than 9 in 10 Americans continue to believe in God (Gallup.com (http://Gallup.com) ). Retrieved fromhttp://www.gallup.com/poll/147887/Americans-Continue-Believe-God.aspx (http://www.gallup.com/poll/147887/Americans-Continue-Believe-God.aspx)Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2013). Skilled for life? Key Þndings from the Survey of Adult Skills. Retrieved fromhttp://skills.oecd.org/SkillsOutlook_2013_KeyFindings.pdf (http://skills.oecd.org/SkillsOutlook_2013_KeyFindings.pdf)PŽrez-Peňa, R. (2013, October 8). U.S. adults fare poorly in a study of skills. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/08/us/us-adults-fare-poorly-in-a-study-of-skills.html (http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/08/us/us-adults-fare-poorly-in-a-study-of-skills.html)Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. (2012, October 9). ÒNonesÓ on the rise: One-in-Þve adults have no religious afÞliation. Retrieved fromhttp://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religious_AfÞliation/UnafÞliated/NonesOnTheRise-full.pdf (http://www.pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Religious_AfÞliation/UnafÞliated/NonesOnTheRise-full.pdf)Pew Research Center (2013, December 30). PublicÕs view on human evolution. Retrieved from http://www.pewforum.org/2013/12/30/publics-views-on-human-evolution/ (http://www.pewforum.org/2013/12/30/publics-views-on-human-evolution/)Quenqua, D. (2013, September 2). Young students against bad science. The New York Times. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/03/science/young-and-against-bad-science.html (http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/03/science/young-and-against-bad-science.html)

Reuters (2013, October 8). Turkey lifts decades-old ban on Islamic head scarf. The New York Times. Retrieved fromhttp://in.reuters.com/article/2013/10/08/turkey-headscarf-ban-idINDEE99706920131008 (http://in.reuters.com/article/2013/10/08/turkey-headscarf-ban-idINDEE99706920131008)Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe. (2000). Certiorari to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit. No. 99Ð62. Argued March 29,2000ÑDecided June 19, 2000 (Legal Information Institute). Retrieved from http://straylight.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/99-62.ZS.html(http://straylight.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/99-62.ZS.html)Talley, J. (2011, April 19). Banning hijab: Anti-veil laws around the world (NakedLaw). Retrieved from http://nakedlaw.avvo.com/2011/04/banning-hijab-anti-veil-laws-around-the-world (http://nakedlaw.avvo.com/2011/04/banning-hijab-anti-veil-laws-around-the-world)U.S. Bureau of the Census. (2012). Table 397: Participation in elections for president and U.S. representatives: 1932Ð2010. In Statistical abstract of theUnited States: 2012. Suitland, MD: Author.U.S. Department of Education. (2011, September 23). Obama administration sets high bar for ßexibility from No Child Left Behind in order to advanceequity and support reform. Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/obama-administration-sets-high-bar-ßexibility-no-child-left-behind-order-advanc (http://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/obama-administration-sets-high-bar-ßexibility-no-child-left-behind-order-advanc)U.S. Department of Education. (n.d.). Elementary and secondary education: ESEA ßexibility. Retrieved from http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/guid/esea-ßexibility/index.html (http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/guid/esea-ßexibility/index.html)Weber, M. (1970). From Max Weber (H. H. Gerth & C. W. Mills, Eds.). Oxford, England: Routledge.Young, M. P. (2002). Confessional protest: The religious birth of U.S. national social movements. American Sociological Review, 67(5), 660Ð688.

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