Choose an ‘ethical’ theory, define the related concepts outlined, and examine literature about the theory identifying and defining other concepts used in the theory. Submissio

Theories and Methods in Ethics

Philosophical inquiry, also known as the practice of "thinking together," is an educational approach that originates from philosophical pragmatism. This type of research shows that knowledge is not simply an acquisition of knowledge that is alien to the knower but arises from a community of inquiry with which students engage and build together.

Many philosophers who consider and address moral problems imagine themselves as ethical. Many college courses on moral issues have "ethics" in their title. The terms "morality" and "ethics" sometimes are interchangeable. In a sense, one's morality is just the set of values ​​and beliefs about right and wrong that one has. But when one deliberately brings clarity, order, and rationality to those values ​​and beliefs, they promote ethics. They can apply critical thinking tools to:

· Clarify moral judgments by using precise definitions and distinctions.

· Identify logical connections between moral judgments.

· Examine moral judgments for consistency.

· Consider the implications of moral judgments.

· Evaluate the reasons for moral judgment.

The more we think critically about reflection and justification of moral values ​​and judgments, the more we become ethical citizens. The first two are especially relevant to work in Focused Inquiry.

Ethics and morals are related to "right" and "wrong" behavior. Ethics refer to rules provided by an outside source, such as codes of conduct in workplaces or religious principles. Morality refers to an individual's regulations regarding good and evil.

RetrievedLinks to an external site.  from  https://www.diffen.com/difference/Ethics_vs_MoralsLinks to an external site.

Ethics is an integral part of science. Like science, it requires that we are reliable and analytically acceptable in our understandings of the activities of researchers. Both of them, the ethics of science and science, contribute to understanding the actions of scientists in manipulating the physical world in human terms. Ethics is the philosophical science that studies morality in general and morality as one of the most important aspects of man's vital activity, as a specific phenomenon of history, and as a form of social consciousness. Ethics explains the place of morality among other social relations and analyzes its nature, internal structure, and role as a social institution. It studies the origins and development of morality in the history of humanity and provides a theoretical basis for a particular system of ethics.

There are several reasons why it is necessary to follow ethical standards during a research project. We must consider that the norms promote the objectives of the investigation, such as knowledge, truth, and the avoidance of errors. For example, prohibitions against the fabrication, falsification, or misrepresentation of research data promote truth and minimize error.

On the other hand, research often involves excellent cooperation and coordination between people in different disciplines and institutions. Ethical standards promote the values ​​ essential for collaborative work, such as responsibility for what is being done, trust and mutual respect among employees, and above all, equity. Many ethical standards in research are designed to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration; examples are the guidelines for authorship, copyright and patent policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review. Scientists want recognition for their contributions and do not want their ideas to be stolen or prematurely disclosed.

Many ethical standards help ensure that researchers are accountable to the public. Federal policies on research misconduct, conflicts of interest, the protection of human subjects, and the care and use of animals are essential to ensure that publicly funded researchers are accountable to the public. Ethical standards in research help generate public support for research; if people trust the quality and integrity of research, people are much more likely to fund a research project.

In addition, research standards promote social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and public health and safety, as variants within other important moral and social values, thus avoiding significantly damaging to human and animal subjects, students, and the public.

Inquiry is an approach to learning that involves exploring the natural or material world, leading to asking questions, making discoveries, and testing those discoveries in the search for new understanding, which warrants investigation. Inquiry requires the researcher to participate in active learning by generating their question guides, looking for possible answers, and exploring complex problems that may arise in their search. Research, while often a component of inquiry, leads to the process of finding solutions. While research can indeed exist as an independent process, inquiry should ultimately lead researchers to view research as a means to seek new ideas, answer further questions, and deal with complex problems.

Inquiry-based learning is not considered a method per se, but rather a process that has the potential to increase students' intellectual engagement and deep understanding, urging them to:

1. Develop your questioning, research, and communication skills.

2. Collaborate outside the scope

3. Solve problems, create solutions, and address real-life issues and concerns.

4. Participate in the creation and improvement of ideas and knowledge

Inquiry-based learning includes the following steps:

· Ask questions

· Probing in various situations

· Conduct analysis and provide descriptions.

· Communicate the findings verbally or in writing.

· Think about the information and knowledge gained.

The field of ethics involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of correct and incorrect behavior. Philosophers split ethical theories into three broad topic sections: metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics. Metaethics examines the means of our moral principles and also from where they come from. The meta-ethical answers to these questions focus on general realities, the desire of God, the responsibility of reason in ethical decisions, and the meaning of the ethical words themselves. Standardizing ethics brings on a more practical task: to arrive at moral standards that regulate correct and incorrect behavior. It may include expressing the good habits that we must acquire, the duties that we must adhere to, or the outcomes of our behavior on others. Finally, applied ethics involves examining controversial issues like abortion, infanticide, animal rights, environmental concerns, homosexuality, capital punishment, or nuclear war (Feiser, n.d.).

Discussions in applied ethics attempt to resolve these controversial issues using the conceptual tools of metaethics and normative ethics. The difference between metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics is often impossible to delineate (Feiser, n.d.). The abortion issue is an applied ethical issue as it involves a specific type of controversial conduct. But it also varies on more conventional standardizing principles, such as the right to autonomy and the freedom to life, which are litmus tests to determine the integrity of this procedure. The question is also centered on meta-ethical problems such as asking the origin of rights or finding out who has rights and who does not.

In general, there are three philosophical approaches, or what can be considered science, to ethical reasoning:

1. Utilitarian ethics

2. Deontological ethics

3. Ethics of Virtue

Utilitarianism  is frequently associated with the idea of the greatest good for the most significant amount. The concept is that ethical decisions are made centered on the consequences of action, which is also sometimes called consequentialism. The appeal of this ethical perspective maybe that it weighs the influence of behavior and establishes the ultimate good for the most significant number. The appeal of this ethical perspective may lie because it seems to be a way of cushioning the impact of behavior and determining the greatest good for the most significant number. But we must consider three main concerns when relying on utilitarian ethics for decision making:

1. Instead of considering the choice or the action itself, decision-makers are forced to guess the potential outcomes of their choice to determine what is ethical. In other words, ethics must be related to the decision-making process, not just the result, which cannot be guaranteed.

2. Utilitarian ethics also "raises questions of conflict about which segment of society should be considered most important" when balancing the "good" or the outcome. So if a solution drastically harms a minority group, it would be unethical for the majority to benefit from that decision. It seems to contradict the public relations goal of building equally valuable interactions, despite the consequences of the number of individuals in a particular stakeholder group.

3. It is not feasible to predict the outcome of an action; the consequences of stocks can be highly volatile or even impossible to predict. Using the results as a measure of ethics will not provide an accurate way for professionals to measure whether decisions are ethical.

Deontological ethics  is associated with Immanuel Kant, considered the father of modern deontology. Kant seeks transcendent principles that apply to all humans, considering that people should be regarded with dignity and appreciation because they have rights. In deontological ethics, "people must respect the rights of other people and treat them accordingly." The central concept is that all people require some objective obligations or duties (Understanding Ethics and The Profession, n.d.).

Challenges to this perspective include conflicts that arise when there is no agreement on the principles involved in the decision; the implications of making a "correct" decision that has terrible consequences; and what decisions need to be made when duties conflict. But despite these concerns, many have found that deontology provides the most robust model for applied public relations ethics. A critical thought in this concept is the assumption that professionals must rely on objective morality to determine ethical behavior.

Virtue ethics  is one of the ethics that has gained more attention in public relations studies in recent years. The ethical consideration is essential "what makes a good person?" The virtue ethic requires the decision-maker to understand which virtues are suitable for open relationships, and then conclusions are made in those particular virtues.

These trio theories of ethics (utilitarian ethics, deontological ethics, virtue ethics) are the basis of conversations on normative ethics. However, it is essential that public relations professionals also understand how to apply these (Ethical Theories, n.d.)

References:

(Some references translated from Spanish resources).

Carper, B. (1978). "Fundamental Patterns of Knowing in Nursing."  Advances in Nursing Science.  1(1): 13–24.  doiLinks to an external site. : 1097/00012272-197810000-00004Links to an external site. .  PMIDLinks to an external site.   110216Links to an external site.

Ethical Theories (n.d.). Retrieved from  https://www.pagecentertraining.psu.edu/public-relations-ethics/introduction-to-public-relations-ethics/lesson-1/ethical-theories/Links to an external site.

Ethics vs. Moral (n.d.) Retrieved from  https://www.diffen.com/difference/Ethics_vs_MoralsLinks to an external site.

Feiser, J. (n.d.). Ethics. EPI. Retrieved from  https://iep.utm.edu/ethics/Links to an external site.

Noel, L. (2016). Promoting an emancipatory research paradigm in Design Education and Practice.  Proceedings of DRS 2016, Design Research Society 50th Anniversary Conference. Brighton, UK, 27–30

Pérez Fuillerat, N., Amezcua, M.(2017) Entre la disociación y la armonía: la compleja relación entre teoría y práctica enfermera. Index de Enfermería  (edición digital); 26(4). Retrieved from http://www.index-f.com/index-enfermeria/v26n4/2641.php

Understanding Ethics and The Profession (n.d.). Retrieved from  https://www.pagecentertraining.psu.edu/public-relations-ethics/introduction-to-public-relations-ethics/lesson-1/Links to an external site.

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