What is a world view and how does this affect our outlook on life and therefore how we approach business problems?
Chapter 6. Culture and Worldview
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1Chapter Overview
Most of us can articulate what our belief system consists of – whether it is religious, secular, philosophical, or something else – we all have a motivation for living, which helps us get up each morning, go to work, and then guides us throughout the day. In this chapter we will examine the importance of world view, which asks basic questions about life in terms of reality, human nature, truth, and values.
The key questions covered in Chapter 6 will be:
What is a world view and how does this affect our outlook on life and therefore how we approach business problems?
What is the role of perception in our intercultural interactions?
What is the difference between a stereotype and a generalization?
We progress in this order by building one aspect upon the other:
we all have a worldview/s;
we all have perceptions about other people’s worldview/s;
we can form stereotypes or create prototypes based upon our perceptions and experiences.
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LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Chapter 6, Culture and Worldview, returns to the discussion of attitudes, beliefs, and values by looking at the concept of world view. We’ll do this by looking at more theories related to intercultural communication, such as the work by two anthropologists, Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, who developed a framework called the Value Orientations Model that addressed questions about human nature, people and nature, sense of time, activity, and social relations. We’ll also look at perceptions and stereotypes. You’ll begin to see the overlap of the theorists mentioned throughout this book and that there are common themes in the research that helps support our practical application of these concepts into your everyday leadership challenges.
Chapter 5. Culture and Context
KEY TAKEAWAY
-Worldviews can be invisible forces that impact our lives and professions. -Explain how culture influences the way individuals view the world.
LEADERSHIP APPLICATIONS
-You will be challenged to consider how to adapt your leadership/communication style to interact more effectively with someone with whom you work. You will be able to consider: upon what worldviews might that person be operating? -Awareness and knowledge are not enough. Examine one of your own cultural perspectives and try to view it from someone else’s. What might be their perspective for why you think, believe, or behave in a certain way?
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Introduction
-Nike Air Bakin’ goes up in flames World View
-Definition
Outline
Information Classification: General Opening Scenario
Nike Air Bakin’ goes up in flames
In 1997 Nike created a design to go on the back of one of its basketball shoes – the Air Bakin’ – which were fiery flames on the back of the shoe that said, “Air.”
Members of the Muslim community were insulted because the logo looked more like the Arabic script for Allah.
Since these shoes were being sold in the Middle East, Nike had to recall 38,000 worldwide.
Nike had no intent to insult, so it redesigned the logo, but only altered it slightly – unfortunately it was almost identical to the original.
The Council on American-Islamic Relations CAIR got involved and Nike had to issue an apology and ended up building three playgrounds in three Islamic neighborhoods.
This particular sports shoe had been dubbed, the “Air Allah” and had news titles claiming, “The Air Bakin’ does not speak Arabic.”
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Opening Scenario
Continued
Discussion Questions:
Why didn’t Nike do its due diligence? How could this happen to a multinational company?
Why did Nike “not get it right” after supposedly fixing the design?
Was the Muslim community upset unnecessarily?
What lessons can we learn about intercultural communication from this example?
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World View
Definition
A worldview is basically a person’s beliefs about life and the universe – one’s core assumptions of what is.
All world views attempt to answer four basic questions about humans and the universe:
What is reality?
Who is man?
What is truth?
What values are important?
Information Classification: General
The word, “worldview” comes from the German word, “weltanschauung,” which is “welt” (world) + “anschauung” (perception, or view).
Emmanuel Kant is credited with first using the term to describe a person’s observations or perceptions about the world
Origin of “Worldview”
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Outline
Value Orientations Model
Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck Orientations
Examples of Value Orientations
Overview of World Religions and Belief Systems
Hinduism
Buddhism
Judaism
Christianity
Islam
Other Religions and Belief Systems
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Value Orientations
Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck Orientations
Much of the field of intercultural communication comes from anthropology.
Clyde Kluckhohn and Frederick Strodtbeck were anthropologists who tried to make sense of human worldview via their work in the Southwestern US in the 1940s and 1950s through the Harvard Values Project. They set out to investigate the core values of different cultures with the hypothesis that all cultures have a limited set of common human problems that need solutions. They concluded that there were five human concerns that all societies are based upon. They hypothesized that intercultural understanding could be improved by exploring any culture’s five concerns:
human nature
people and nature
time sense
activity
social relations
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Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck Value Orientations Model
ORIENTATION RANGE
Human Nature What is the basic nature of people? Evil People are born “bad” with selfish tendencies and must become good. Mixed People have a bit of good and bad in them. Good People are born good and become corrupted by the world
People and Nature What is the basic nature of humans? Subordination to Nature Humans yield to nature and its external forces Live in Harmony with Nature People flow with nature and must learn to be in harmony with it Mastery Over Nature People try to control nature; nature is there for us to use
Time Sense How do people think about time? Past People learn from history & traditions to guide their life Present People live in the moment; today is what is important Future People look ahead to plan goals – sacrificing now ensures security.
Activity What is the preferred approach to activity? Being People take time to pause and live in the moment Becoming People are in-process of becoming Doing People are action oriented; rewards come through achievement
Social Relations How do humans form their social organization? Hierarchical Decisions made by those with the right authority. Protection from benevolent boss/leader Collective Decisions made by group consensus. Individual Decisions made by personal autonomy
Adapted from Ting-Toomey, S. 1999. Communicating across cultures. New York: Guillford Press
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Overview of World Religions and Belief Systems
How many religions or belief systems exist in the world today?
There are anywhere between 4000-6000.
2010 Pew Reserch Center study examined the size of major religious and non-religious groups in the world based upon global population and came up with the following:
Christians 2.2 billion (32%)
Muslims 1.6 billion (23%)
Non-religious affiliations 1.1 billion (16%)
Hindus 1 billion (15%)
Buddhists 500 million (7%)
Folk /traditional religions 400 million (6%) including: African traditional religions, Chinese folk religions, Native Amrican religions, Australian aboriginal religions
Other religions 58 million (1%) including: Baha’i, Jainism, Sikhism, Shintoism, Taoism Zoroastrianism
Jews 14 million (0.2%)
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For Discussion
How might religions be analyzed according to the Kluckhohn-Strodtbeck Model?
See the Big Religions Chart
http://www.religionfacts.com/big-religion-chart
Summary Table of World Religions
Canadian Ecumenical Foundation
http://www.uri.org/files/resource_files/WorldReligionSummary1.pdf
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Discussion – Have you ever thought about this?
What is: Islam, Muslim, Arab, Arabic Speaker?
Islam is a religion.
A Muslim is a person who follows the religion of Islam.
Arabs are people who live on the Arabian Peninsula or in Arab regions (this is a nationality).
Arabs speak the Arab language but can choose any faith.
Muslims can have any native language; however, the Quran is written in Arabic.
Indonesia has the largest population of Muslims in the world.
Information Classification: General Outline
e. Perception and Culture The science of perception influence on perception Games of perception Food and perception
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Perception and Culture
The science of perception
Perception is the neural process involving how our brains select, evaluate, and organize stimuli, thus enabling us to experience the world around us.
This includes evaluating things, objects, symbols, people, incidents, beliefs, etc., according to our sensory receptors (sight, sound, smell, touch, taste).
We receive stimuli that immediately get stored in our brain which is one huge data bank of everything we have ever experienced.
We filter these stimuli in order to interpret the incoming sensations and use that information to categorize it. We do this without even realizing it‑perception is about categorization.
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Culture’s influence on perception
Psychologists also tell us that culture influences our perception.
We’ve all played the game where there are two images, and we are asked to choose which we see first‑such as the black and white image that could be either two people looking at each other or some type of vase. We all approach such an exercise from a different perspective.
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Figure/Ground (Gestalt) Theory
This is the Figure-Ground Perception Theory, (also known as the Gestalt Theory: the whole is more (or different) than the sum of its parts.
Gestalt comes from German meaning “form” or “shape.”
The main object we look at (the figure) becomes our focus and all else forms the background (or ground)
Depending upon whether you see the black or the white as the figure, you may see either two faces in profile (meaning you perceive the dark color as the figure) or a vase in the center (meaning you see the white color as the figure).
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Discussion
What are other images that you have seen regarding perception?
Our perception of reality is more important to us than reality itself.
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Outline
Stereotypes and Mental Representations
Definition of stereotype
Prototypes
Stereotypes and generalizations
Sophisticated stereotypes
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Mental Representations
Mental representations (schema) come from the field of psychology.
Cognitive psychologists tell us that this same categorizing occurs when we encounter a new culture.
We create mental categories, called cognitive maps, which help us categorize what is unfamiliar or complex.
As part of the process we compare what is known against what is not in order to categorize and make sense of the intake of information.
Without even knowing it, we unconsciously begin to categorize the input data in order to make sense out of it.
If we couldn’t make generalizations and put similar items into categories, we couldn’t make sense of any unfamiliar subject
Information Classification: General
Definition of stereotype
The concept of a stereotype comes from the historical development in printing where little metal pieces called “type” are set together in a frame or mold and once ink is applied, the type is identically reproduced in another frame.
The definition has come to mean a fixed or rigid perception of something that does not vary – it is “set in type” or as another idiomatic phrase says, “set in stone.” It is limited because it is firmly set into that frame in order to be printed exactly as the little metal pieces (the text and punctuation) are laid out.
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Stereotypes are often dangerous
Stereotypes become dangerous when we determine that ALL people are “this or that” and we become rigid and inflexible with our views.
If we meet one person or have one experience or if we read about something, rather than think that EVERYONE is like that, it would be wise to be open to other possibilities.
Information Classification: General Stereotypes
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Prototypes
Prototypes: models that are not rigid.
They are also mental representations based on general characteristics but are NOT fixed or rigid.
Prototypes are open to new definitions.
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Stereotypes and Generalizations
A stereotype is a belief about a person or group that puts everyone into a category.
When you make a stereotype you tend to reject contradictory information by using selective perception and refusing to change your attitude.
A generalization is an idea that has a general rather than specific application that is a hypothesis to be tested and observed.
You analyze the data and constantly test your ideas by being open, curious, and willing to learn.
A generalization is not set in type as with the old block letters of an 19th Century printing press – rather, you build a prototype‑a model that can be molded, designed, or fashioned based upon your experience.
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Stereotypes and Generalizations Continued
A generalization is not set in type as with the old block letters of an 19th Century printing press – rather, you build a prototype‑a model that can be molded, designed, or fashioned based upon your experience.
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Outline
h. Universalism and Particularism
Definitions
Example
f. Summary
Information Classification: General Universalism and Particularism
Universalism: follow the letter of the law
Particularism: bend the law based on circumstances
Fons Trompenaars
Organizational behavior expert with a Ph.D. from Wharton, a highly respected cross-cultural management consultant, and author of the popular book, Riding the Waves of Culture, Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business.
Information Classification: General
Universalism and Particularism
Continued
He describes Universalism Particularism and through this story:
“You are in a car with a friend who is driving. Your friend hits a pedestrian who was walking on the street. You know that your friend was going 50/80 mph/kph in a place where the official speed limit was 30 mph/48kph. There were no other witnesses, just you. Your friend’s lawyer says that if you testify that your friend was only going 30 mph/48kph that you will save your friend from serious consequences. What right does your friend have to expect that you protect him?
My friend has every right to expect me to testify that he was only going 30 mph/48kph.
My friend has some right to expect me to testify that he was only going 30 mph/48kph.
My friend has no right to expect me to testify that he was only going 30 mph/48kph.”
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Universalism and Particularism
This is a dilemma –Do you stay loyal to the universals of not lying under oath?
Are you loyal to the particulars of your friend? Dilemmas force us to embrace seemingly contradictory values while aiming for long term goals.
Trompenaars says, “Once you become aware of cultural differences, you see that everything is one big dilemma.
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Characteristics of Universalism and Particularism
Universalism Strategies Particularism Strategies
Rules or laws that can be applied to everyone. Explain that you are using an objective process to others. Emphasis is placed on friendships. Friends will look at the situation to determine what is right or ethically acceptable. Take time to build relationships, slowly and over time.
Agreements and contracts are used as the basis for doing business. Provide clear instructions regarding your expectations of all involved. Deals are made based upon friendships; agreements are changeable. Be flexible with instructions and be prepared to make compromises.
Rules are used to determine what is right; contracts should not be altered. Be consistent by keeping promises and giving people adequate time in their decision-making. Different people hold different views about reality. Respect the needs of others based upon your growing relationship and knowledge gained.
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Examples
In universalistic cultures, people place a strong value on laws, rules, and obligations and put rules before friendships.
In particularistic cultures people put the relationship before the rules believing that each circumstance and relationship determines how one should behave.
For example, in universalistic cultures (such as Anglo and Germanic cultures) it would be necessary to write up a formal contract that spells out every single detail, sign it, and have it vetted by attorneys before closing a deal. If one of the parties breaks one of the clauses in the contract, they could be sued.
However, in particularistic cultures (such as Latin and Arab cultures), legal contracts come after the trusting relationship that has been carefully developed over time. A person’s word is more important than a signed paper and a hoard of lawyers.
Discussion? Does this mean that particularistic cultures never use contracts?
Information Classification: General
Of course not. Contracts are important; however, the personal relationships that have been developed over time provide a sense of security and bond when entering into business dealings.
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Summary
This chapter explained how everyone has a world view or the vantage point to survey her or his world.
As we try to make sense of the world, each of us uses the process of perception to make sense of the external stimuli coming at all five senses.
We take in these stimuli, process them, and create mental representations, or schema, in order to make sense of it all.
From there we can choose to be flexible by building prototypes, those flexible, organic models that help us understand, or stereotypes, those rigid, static labels that hurt.
It is an established sociological need to make understand unfamiliar people, places, things, and situations in order to make sense, so we rely on generalizations.
We compare what we know to what we don’t know.
Such generalizations are all right as long as we view them as hypotheses to be tested rather than rigid judgments that define all people.
We have seen how culture influences the way people view the world. As business professionals we need to remember that tacit worldviews can be invisible forces that impact our lives, professions, and the people with whom we interact.
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