DEVELOPING LEADERSHIP CHARACTER IN BUSINESS PROGRAMS
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See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280294546Developing Leadership Character in Business ProgramsArticle in Academy of Management Learning and Education, The · June 2013DOI: 10.5465/amle.2011.0024ACITATIONS135READS7,3224 authors, including:Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:Leader Character View projectIan O. Ihnatowycz Institute for Leadership at Ivey Business School View projectMary CrossanThe University of Western Ontario77 PUBLICATIONS 15,703 CITATIONS SEE PROFILEGerard SeijtsThe University of Western Ontario82 PUBLICATIONS 3,869 CITATIONS SEE PROFILEJeffrey GandzThe University of Western Ontario32 PUBLICATIONS 1,618 CITATIONS SEE PROFILEAll content following this page was uploaded by Gerard Seijts on 24 August 2015.The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.
DevelopingLeadershipCharacterinBusinessProgramsMARYCROSSANWesternUniversity,London,Ontario,CanadaDAINAMAZUTISIMD,Lausanne,SwitzerlandGERARDSEIJTSJEFFREYGANDZWesternUniversity,London,Ontario,CanadaOurobjectiveistoencourageandenableleadershipcharacterdevelopmentinbusinesseducation.Buildingonamodelofcharacterstrengthsandtheirlinktovirtues,values,andethicaldecisionmaking,wedescribeanapproachtodevelopleadershipcharacterattheindividual,group,andorganizationallevels.Wecontrastthisapproachtoexistingpracticesthathavefocusedonteachingfunctionalcontentovercharacterandaddresshowbusinesseducatorscanenableleadershipcharacterdevelopmentthroughtheirownbehaviors,relationships,andstructures.Mostimportant,weprovideconcretesuggestionsonhowtointegrateafocusoncharacterdevelopmentintoexistingbusinessprograms,bothintermsofindividualcoursesaswellastheoverallcurriculum.Wehighlightthatthedevelopmentofleadershipcharactermustextendbeyondstudentengagementinacoursesince“ittakesavillage”todevelopcharacter…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….Corporatescandalsthatrecountgreedandram-pantmaterialismhaveledtoanincreaseddistrust,ifnotdisdain,forbusinessleaders.Thecrisisofconfidenceinleadershiphasmanifesteditselfnotonlyinbusiness,butalsoinpublicadministra-tions,thesportsarena,culturalorganizations,andreligiousinstitutions.Inallofthis,theroleofchar-acterresurfacestimeandagainasacontributingculpritintheapparentdeclineofethicalleader-ship,particularlyinthebusinesssphere.Moretroublingisthattheresponsibilityforthismorassisincreasinglybeingassignedtothebusinessschools’pumpingoutastaggeringnumberofso-calledleaders,topopulatenotonlycorporateAmerica,butalsomultinationalsworldwide.Attheheightofthefinancialcrisis,theEconomistvoicedthisscathingsentiment:Mostofthepeopleattheheartofthecrisis—fromDickFuldatLehmanBrotherstoJohnThainatMerrillLynchtoAndyHornbyatHBOS—hadMBAsaftertheirname…Inrecentyearsabout40%ofthegraduatesofAmerica’sbestbusinessschoolsendeduponWallStreet,wheretheyassiduouslyappliedthetechniquesthattheyhadspentasmallfortunelearning.Youcannotbothclaimthatyourmissionis“toeducateleaderswhomakeadifferenceintheworld”…andthenwashyourhandsofyouralumniwhenthediffer-encetheymakeismalign(Economist,Sep-tember24,2009:on-lineedition).WegratefullyacknowledgethefeedbackandinsightsprovidedbyAssociateEditorCarolynEgriandthreeanonymousreview-ers.Wealsoacknowledgetheinsightandencouragementfromtheparticipantsinour“LeadershiponTrial”discussiongroupswhohaveinspiredourwork,andthefinancialsupportofthePierreElliottTrudeauFoundation.AcademyofManagementLearning&Education,2013,Vol.12,No.2,285–305.http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amle.2011.0024A……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………285CopyrightoftheAcademyofManagement,allrightsreserved.Contentsmaynotbecopied,emailed,postedtoalistserv,orotherwisetransmittedwithoutthecopyrightholder’sexpresswrittenpermission.Usersmayprint,download,oremailarticlesforindividualuseonly.
Therecentfinancialcrisishasprovidedanotheropportunityforbusinessschoolstore-evaluatetheirroleinteachingleadershipandindevelopingleaders.Manyschoolshaveresponded,producingconferences,summits,opinionpieces,andbookseitherjustifyingtheirwaysorproposinganewwayforward.Theseincrementalandradicalchangestothecurriculumpointtothesamefun-damentalquestion:Howarewechangingthewayweeducateleaderstodaytoensurethattheymakeamorepositivedifferenceintheworldtomorrow?Weseektopresentthecaseforrefocusingoncharacterdevelopmentinbusinesseducationasanecessarycounterpointtomorefunctionalper-spectivesthatfocusprimarilyonteachingleader-shipskillsandcompetencies.Todothis,wedecon-structwhatwemeanbycharacterandreviewhowthisconcepthastraditionallybeendealtwithinleadershipresearchandteaching,inparticularhighlightingtheneglectofavirtue-basedethicsorientation.Weprovideconcretesuggestionsonhowtointegrateafocusoncharacterdevelopmentintoexistingbusinessprograms,bothintermsofcurriculumdevelopmentandclassroomtech-niques.Ouraimistoinspireeducatorstoembracearolebeyondthatofmerepurveyorsofmanage-mentknowledge,towardoneofcatalystforvirtu-ousleadershipdevelopment.WHYCHARACTER?Ourcommitmenttounderstandinganddevelopingleadershipcharacterarosefromaprojectwehadundertakentoinvestigatetheroleofleadershipandbusinesseducationinthecurrentfinancialcrisis.Aspartofthisproject,weheldaseriesofroundtablediscussionswithover300seniorlead-ers,humanresourceandorganizationaldevelop-mentspecialistsbetweenSeptember2009andMay2010inCanada,China,EnglandandtheUnitedStates.Thecontentoftheconversationswaswideranging.Onethemethatexecutivesraisedanddiscussedextensivelywascharacter.Inpresentingthevoiceofthepractitionerinthisessay,wedonotintendtosuggestthattoday’sbusinessleadershavetherightanswerstopress-ingbusinessproblems,butrathertorevealthattheyarethinkingaboutcharacter,havetroubleunderstandingwhatitis,andarelookingtobusi-nessschoolstohelpthemfigureitout.Forexam-ple,whilecharacterwasraisedfrequentlyinourdiscussions,therewasnoconsistentunderstand-ingaboutwhatitmeant,despiteaconcurrencethatitwasimportant.Thefollowingaretwoexam-plesofquotestakenfromourconversationsillus-tratingtheimportancethattoday’sbusinesslead-ers’placeontheroleofvaluesandcharacter:•Itappearstomethat,youknow,withoutsortofcondemningsocietyasawhole,weseemtolackamoralcompasstosortofmaketherightdecisionwhentherewardsystemissuggest-ingthatweshouldtradethefutureforthepres-ent.Ithinkasaleadershipgroupwelackthemoralvigortomaketheintelligenttradeoffs…And,so,Ijustthinkasasocietywe’rebecom-ingincreasinglyagnosticaboutwhatwebe-lieveinandwhatwestandfor.•Ifyouhaveasenseofwhatyourvaluesare,itbecomesalittlebiteasierforyoutofigureoutwhatisrightorwrong.Itbecomesalittlebiteasierforyoutobecourageousandsay,“Idon’tlikeit”or“Icanlivewithit”or“HereishowIamgoingtodealwithit,”butitallcomesfromasenseofknowingwhat’simportanttoyoufirstly.Inalmosteverydiscussionthequestion—“cancharacterbetaught?”cameup.Theexecutiveswetalkedtoexpressedstrongviewsaboutthisandthechallengethedevelopmentofcharacterwouldpresenttobusinessprograms.Thispracticalbusi-nessconcernmotivatedustotakeadeeperlookatcharacterandhowwecoulddevelopitwithinabusinessschoolcontext.DECONSTRUCTINGCHARACTERPetersonandSeligman(2004)havedonesomeveryheavyliftingintheir800-pagebookdevotedtotheclassificationanddescriptionofvirtuesandchar-acterstrengths,andweadopttheirdefinitionshere.Whilefutureresearchmaydebatetheircon-clusions,theyprovideasoundstartingpointforourapproach.Havingidentifiedsixuniversalvir-tuesthatarecommonacrossabroadsampleofcultures,religions,andmoralphilosophers—wisdom,courage,humanity,justice,temperance,andtranscendence—characterstrengthsarethenthechosenorvoluntaryprocessesormechanismsbywhichthesevirtuesareexpressed(Peterson&Seligman,2004).Thedefinitionsofthesixvirtuesandtheirassociatedcharacterstrengthsareasfollows:Wisdom—Cognitivestrengthsthatentailtheacquisitionanduseofknowledge(creativity,curiosity,judgment,loveoflearning,perspective)286JuneAcademyofManagementLearning&Education
Courage—Emotionalstrengthsthatinvolvetheexerciseofwilltoaccomplishgoalsinthefaceofopposition,externalorinternal(brav-ery,perseverance,honesty,zest)Humanity—Interpersonalstrengthsthatin-volvetendingandbefriendingothers(love,kindness,socialintelligence)Justice—Civicstrengthsthatunderliehealthycommunitylife(teamwork,fairness,leadership)Temperance—strengthsthatprotectagainstexcess(forgiveness,humility,pru-dence,self-regulation)Transcendence—Strengthsthatforgecon-nectionstothelargeruniverseandprovidemeaning(appreciationofbeautyandexcel-lence,gratitude,hope,humor,spirituality)Virtuesrepresentsomewhatabstractexemplarsofgoodcharacter,andcharacterstrengthsarethemeasurablegroupofrelatedtraitsthatreflecttheuniversalvirtues(Sosik&Cameron,2010).Ifaper-sonpossessesaparticularvirtue,thentheimpli-cationisthatindividualscanexplainaparticularbehaviorwithreferencetothatperson’scharacterstrengthsandpredictwhatthatpersonwilldounderparticularcircumstancesbasedonpastbe-haviors(Alzola,2012;McKinnon,1999).Anindividual’scharacterconsistsofbothhabit-ualqualitiesorcharacterstrengthsandasecond,moremotivationalcomponent(Audi,2012;Wright&Goodstein,2007).Hereweintroducevaluesasmotivationaldriversthatmayleadorconstrainanindividualtodesireaparticularendgoal(Schwartz,1996).Forexample,Rokeach(1973:5)de-finedvaluesas“enduringbeliefsthataspecificmodeofconductorend-stateofexistenceisper-sonallyorsociallypreferabletoanoppositeorconversemodeofconductorend-state.”Assuch,valuescanbeprioritizedsothatonemayfavoraparticularcourseofactionoveranother—forexam-ple,conformityvaluessuchasself-discipline(e.g.,self-restraintandresistancetotemptation)canserveasaguidingprincipleinone’slifeoverstim-ulation(e.g.,excitementandnovelty)values(Schwartz,1996).Valuesarethereforethecorefromwhichweoperateandhencetheyhelpcultivateparticularcharacterstrengths.Thebehaviorsas-sociatedwithcharacterstrengths,inturn,forgetheevolutionofthevaluesthatpeoplehold.Personalitytraitsliesomewhereinbetweenha-bitualcharacterstrengths(orweaknesses)andmo-tivationalvaluesinthatthesearenotuniversallyadmiredqualities,nordotheynecessarilymoti-vatethepursuitofpersonalorsocietalgood,orofhumanflourishing(Alzola,2012).Personalitytraitsareendogenousbasictendenciesthatgiverisetodistinctpatternsofthought,feelings,andactions(McCrae&Costa,2008).PersonalitytraitssuchastheBigFivearerelevanttothediscussionofchar-acterinthatsometraits(e.g.,opennesstoexperi-ence)reflectcertainvalues(e.g.,stimulationandself-directionvalues)thatcanmotivatebehavioraldispositions(e.g.,curiosity,loveoflearning)thatareexpressionsofvirtuessuchaswisdom.Thedifficultywithpersonalitytraitsisthattheseareoftenassumedtoberelativelyfixedindividualfeaturesdefinedbygeneticsorevolutionaryselec-tionprocess(Judge,Piccolo,&Kosalka,2009;Mc-Craeetal.,2000)asopposedtovaluesandcharac-terstrengthsthatcanbedevelopedthroughlifeeventsandexperiences(Sosik&Cameron,2010).Theabovedeconstructionofcharacterisfromtherelativelyrecentacademicdomainsofpsychol-ogyandthesocialsciences.Philosophers,ontheotherhand,havedebatedtheroleofvirtueandcharacterinpursuitofthegoodlifeformillennia,withearlyworkrootedinPlatoandAristotleandmorerecentrevivalsattributabletoAnscombe(1958);MacIntyre(1981);Solomon(1992);Kupperman(1995);andHursthouse(1999),amongothers.How-ever,ithasbeenwellestablishedthatwecanonlyunderstandvirtuesbybridgingphilosophyandpsychology(Anscombe,1958),andthus,weneedawaytointegratethebroadliteratureonvirtues,characterstrengths,values,andpersonalitytraitsacrosstheseacademicfields.Tothisend,wein-troduceavirtue-basedorientation(VBO)modelthatplacescharacterdevelopmentatthecoreofethicaldecisionmaking(EDM)inbusiness(Cros-san,Mazutis,&Seijts,2013;seeFigure1).TheVBOmodelisaconceptualizationthatenablesustoorganizethesecoreelements.Itisnotourintenttosuggestthatthisconceptualizationistheonlywaytodoso.Indeed,thereareotherconceptualizationssuchasTreviño’s(1986)interactionistmodelthatdemonstratestheeffectoftheinteractionofindi-vidualdifferencesandsituationalpressuresonethicaldecisions.However,theinteractionistmodeldoesnotfocusspecificallyonvirtues,char-acterstrengths,andvaluesandsotheutilityoftheVBOmodelisasanorganizingframeworkfortheconceptswediscuss.BuildingonRest’s(1986)four-stageprocessofawareness,judgment,intent,andbehavior,ourVBOmodeladdsthecriticalcomponentofreflec-2013287Crossan,Mazutis,Seijts,andGandz
tionasamediatorinare-conceptualizedcircularmodelofEDMthathighlightstheimportantroleofcontinuouslearningincharacterdevelopment.Thiscircularitysuggeststhatindividualshavethecapacitytodeepencharacterstrengthsaroundthevirtuousmeanastheyavoidvicesofdeficiencyorexcess.Byvirtuousmean,weproposeasetofchar-acterstrengthsthatareareflectionofindividualbehavioraldispositionsassociatedwiththeuni-versalvirtues(Peterson&Seligman,2004),anditisthesecharacterstrengthsthatcanbedeepenedthroughreflectionandreason(Alzola,2012;McKin-non,1999;Sadler-Smith,2012)asdetailedinTable1.Forexample,individualscandevelopthechar-acterstrengthofbravery,associatedwiththevir-tueofcourage,butaVBOsuggeststhatitisonlythroughthiscycleofexperienceandreflectionthatindividualscandosowhilealsoavoidingtheviceofrecklessness(thatrepresentstheexcessofbrav-ery)ortheviceofcowardice(thatindicatesadefi-ciencyinbravery).Itisinthiscapacityforreflec-tion,whichcanbedoneindividually,butofteninvolvesdialogue/dialecticandengagementwithothers(Aristotle,1999;Schon,1987),thatindividu-alsdevelopaVBOtoEDM.ThisVBOtoEDM,inturn,canserveasabuffertosituationalpressuresthatmaynegativelyinfluenceone’snaturalten-denciesordispositionstoactinaccordancetoone’svirtuouscharacterstrengths.Bothsituationalpressuresandcomponentsofanindividual’schar-acterwill,therefore,determinehowtheEDMpro-cessisengaged.TheVBOmodelofEDMismeantasaninten-tionalcounterpointandcorollarytomoreconse-quentialistperspectivesthatfocusonweighingthecostsandbenefitsassociatedwiththestrategicchoicesforthevariousstakeholders,mostoftenprioritizingshareholdersinthisethicalcalculus(Whetstone,2001).Bycontrast,aVBOfocusesnotonlyontheoutcomesofethicaldecisionsaslearn-FIGURE1AVirtueBasedModel(VBO)ofEthicalDecisionMaking(EDM)288JuneAcademyofManagementLearning&Education
ingopportunitiesforfutureethicaldecisions,butalsoondevelopingthecharacterstrengthsoftheindividualmakingdecisions(deColle&Werhane,2008).ThisisnotmeanttoimplythatsituationalpressuresdonothaveanimportanteffectonEDMprocesses,butratherthat,allotherthingsbeingequal,astrongerVBO,orcapacitytodeepenchar-acterstrengths,canserveasabufferagainstthesesituationalpressuresandthusleadtobetterdecisions.Alsoimportanttonoteisthatweseethismodelapplyingtodecisionmakingmoregenerallysincemanystimuliareoftennotpresentedaseitherethicalornonethicaldecisions(Provis,2010).Rather,individualsengageinasocialprocessofsense-making,anditisofteninhindsightthatwerecognizethatourconversationsoractionsresultindecisionsthathaveethicaldimensions(Sonen-shein,2007).Thus,ifdevelopingcharacterstrengthssuchasopenmindedness,compassion,andhumilitythroughreflectioncanstrengthennotonlyethicaldecisionmakingbutalsodecisionmakingingeneral,thequestionthenbecomes“cancharacterbetaught?”Weturntothisquestionnext,takingintoaccountbothabroadhistoricalperspective,aswellastheinsightsheardfrompractitionersdescribedintheprevioussection.CanCharacterBeTaught?Inresponsetoourdiscussionsaboutcharacter,oneexecutivecommented:Theissue,basedonmyobservations,isthecharacterofMBAstudents,isalreadydeeplyformedbefore[enteringthebusinessschool]andthenburnishedby[thebusinessschool].TheMBAstudentsaredriven—that’showtheyearnedthequalificationsforacceptance.Theyaredrivenfurtherbyahyperintenseenvironment.Whentheygraduate,theycon-tinuetobedriven.Drivenpeopleareunlikelytobereflectiveandmorallyaware,perhapsuntilalifealteringeventoccurs.IwouldalsoaddthatIsawclearliesandpanderingdur-ingMBAclassdiscussionsaboutethics:peo-plesaidwhatwouldgetthemthemarks.So…IamlesshopefulaboutMBAstudentsandtheirmoralawakening.Thissentimentisnotunusualandisillustrativeofthechallengesinherentwhenbroachingthetopicofcharacterdevelopmentinbusinessschools.Yet,thedebateaboutwhethercharactercanbetaughtisnotanewoneandis,infact,asTABLE1DeepeningCharacterStrengthsWithintheVirtuousMeanvs.Deficiency/ExcessVirtueDeficiencyVirtuousmeanExcessWisdomUnoriginalityClosedtoexperienceClosedmindedApathyCreativityCuriosityOpenmindednessLoveoflearningImpracticalityUnfocusedinterestLackofjudgmentObsessiveCourageCowardiceLazinessInauthenticityBraveryPersistenceIntegrityRecklessnessZealotRighteousnessHumanityHarsh/CruelUnfeelingStinginessSociallyawkwardKindnessCompassionGenerositySocialintelligenceObsequiousIndulgentProfligacyManipulativeJusticeTreacheryUnjustLackofconfidenceCitizenshipFairnessLeadershipBlindobedienceUndiscerningDictatorshipTemperanceUnmercifulBoastfulnessRashSlothForgivenessHumilityPrudenceSelf-regulationPushoverSelf-deprecationOverlycautiousInflexibleTranscendenceUngratefulHopelessSpiritlessnessGratitudeHopeSpiritualitySuppliantbehaviorFoolishnessFundamentalismNote.AdaptedfromAristotle(1999)andPetersonandSeligman(2004).2013289Crossan,Mazutis,Seijts,andGandz
oldasphilosophicalthoughtitself.Whileafullexpositionofthephilosophicalargumentsastowhethercharactercanbetaughtisbeyondourscope,thenextsectionbrieflydescribesboththeyesandnosidesofthisquestion.TheYesSideFormanyoftheancientGreeks,includingPlatoandAristotle,itwasnotsomuchthatcharactercouldbetaught,butrather,thatcharacterissome-thingthatishabituated—thatis,acquiredthroughtheconsistentapplicationofthevirtuesoverthecourseofone’slifetime(Aristotle,1999;Arjoon,2000).Thus,similartolearninganyothernewskill,itisonlythroughpracticingvirtuousactsthatwedevelopcharacter.Furthermore,Aristotlesawcharacterassome-thingthatisnotformedonone’sown,butratherthatrequiresrelationshipsandcommunity—itisonlythroughsharingourinterestsandgoalswithothersthatthebondsofkinshipallowustode-velopsocialvirtuessuchastemperance,generos-ity,andfriendliness(Horvath,1995;Solomon,1992).Individualssimilarlylearnwhatisrightandgoodbyobservinggoodpeopledoingtherightthingandthenaspiringtobecomeofsimilarcharacter(Hill&Stewart,1999).Onecouldthereforesaythatnotonlyischaractersomethingthatcanbelearned,butalsoitistheresponsibilityofsocialinstitutions—includingeducationalinstitutions—toteachcharacterbyprovidinganenvironmentthatfostersvirtuousbehaviorandwherevirtuousbehaviorscanbeobservedanddiscovered(Sadler-Smith,2012).Deliberateteachinginterventionssuchasrole-plays,collaborativelearningtechniques,service-learningopportunities,andself-reflectionexer-cisesintheclassroomappeartoaffectcharacterdevelopmentthroughincreasedmoralawarenessandmoralreasoning(Comer&Vega,2008;Kish-Gephart,Harrison,&Treviño,2010;Schmidt,McAd-ams,&Foster,2009).However,thereisalsoevi-dencethatelementsofcharactercanbelearnedthroughdirectexperienceoftheenvironmentalone.Forexample,Krishnan(2008)foundthataf-ter2yearsofMBAeducation,studentsshowedanincreaseintheimportanceofself-orientedvalues,suchaslivingacomfortablelifeandpleasurewhileother-orientedvalues,suchasbeinghelpfulandpolitebecamelessimportant.Wang,Malho-tra,andMurnighan(2011)demonstratedthatin-creasedexposuretoeconomicscourseswasposi-tivelyrelatedtoattitudestowardgreedandattitudestowardone’sowngreedybehavior.Inareviewofstudiesinthisarea,Ferraro,Pfeffer,andSutton(2005:14)concludedthat“oneeffectofeco-nomicstrainingistostrengthenbeliefsintheper-vasiveness,appropriateness,anddesirabilityofself-interestedbehaviour,which,inturn,shouldleadtoexhibitingmoreself-interestedbehaviour.”Therefore,regardlessoftheintentionalityofthedevelopmentofcharacterinbusinesseducation,itnonethelessappearstobehappening,withbothdesirableandperhapsundesirableresults(Ghoshal,2005).TheNoSideAlthoughevidenceseemstosuggestthatcharactercanbetaught,learned,andhabituated,criticsar-guethatevenifthisistrue,thepracticalimplica-tionsarelimited(Doris,2002;Harman,2003).Thisisbecauseevengoodpeoplearewillingtocommitbadactsunderparticularcircumstances,andonesimplycannotchangepeople’scoredispositions(e.g.,youcannotmakeanarcissisticpersonhum-ble).Wepresentandrebuteachcriticisminturn.Thefirstcriticismfocusesonobservationsthatcharacterstrengthscannotbeunderstoodassta-bleandconsistent,butratherthattheywillbendtotheparticulardemandsofthesituation(Zimbardo,2008).Theextremeofthisargumentisthatcharac-terdoesnotevenexistsincesituationaldetermi-nantsoverrideit(Doris,2002;Harman,2003).Forexample,despitebeingcaring,kind,andcompas-sionate,individualsstilladministeredwhattheyconsideredtobeexcruciatingelectricalshockstoinnocentparticipantsifsoinstructedbyapersonofauthority(e.g.,Milgram’sobediencestudies)orfailedtohelpsomeoneinneediftheywereper-sonallylateforanotherappointment(e.g.,DarleyandBatson’sGoodSamaritanlectureandintervention).Situationaliststhussuggestthatteachingchar-acterisfutileasitcannotexplainwhyevenvirtu-ouspeoplemightbehaveinanuncharacteristi-callyunvirtuousmannerandthatstrongcharacteralonecannotpreventunethicalbehavior(Doris,2002).However,recentresearchhasdemonstratedthatthesituationalistargumentrestsonempiricalevidencethatislargelymisconstrued.Forexam-ple,Alzola(2008)arguedthatreplicationstudiesofboththeObediencetoAuthorityandGoodSamar-itanexperimentshaveresultedinwidelydiver-gentfindings.Alsoimportantisthatmanyofthese290JuneAcademyofManagementLearning&Education
studiesrelyon“extremesituationsfarremovedfromeverydaylife”(Alzola,2008:349)andone-shotmeasurements,whichbydefinitioncannotcaptureaperson’shabitualqualitiesandmotivationaldriversovertime—conditionsthatwouldbenec-essaryintheattributionofcharacter.Furthermore,becausevirtuerequiresalifelongeffort,includingreflectingonethicaldecisionsthatmayhavegonewrong,cross-sectionalstudiesofparticularinter-ventionscannotadequatelycapturevirtueasman-ifestbylearningfrommistakes(Kupperman,2001).Finally,althoughhighlydisputed,Alzola(2008)claimsthatsituationaleffectsaccountforonlyasmallportionofthevarianceinbehavior.Thesecondcriticismofteachingcharacterinbusinesseducationcentersonthebeliefthatnoteveryoneisequallyteachable.Inspiteoftheprom-iseHartman(2006:69)holdsforteachingcharacterinabusinessschoolcontext,evenhecon-cededthat:Noethicscoursewillmuchaffectastudentwho,aftercarefulconsideration,believesthattheonewhodieswiththemosttoyswinsinthezerosumgamethatisbusinessandthats/hewantstobesuchaperson.Norcanwedoagreatdealforpeopleincapableofdevelop-inganyskillindealingwithcomplexsitua-tions,orthoseincapableofdoinganythingotherthanwhatnearlyeveryoneelseisdoing.Yet,thereisnoempiricalevidencetosupportthis“unteachable”hypothesis.Ifwebelievethatourstudentsarelargelyincapableofdevelopingtheskillstodealwithcomplexsituations,wewouldalsostopteachingstrategy,finance,opera-tionsmanagement,andmarketing.Arguably,un-dergraduateandMBAstudentsmaybeinaveryimpressionablephaseoftheirlearningdevelop-ment,whileexecutivesmayfindthemselvesskep-tical,jaded,andcynical.Bothextremespresentopportunitiesinasmuchasindividualshaveameasureofindirectcontrolovertheirwantsandbeliefs,theyalsohaveindirectcontroloverthedevelopmentofcharacterstrengthsandmitigationofcharacterweaknesses(Audi,2012).Inthissection,wepresentedsupportfortheim-portanceofleadershipcharacterandarguedthatitcanbeinfluenced,inabusinessschoolcontext.Wenowturnourfocustohowcharacterdevelop-mentoccursinbusinessschoolsettings,usingalevels-of-analysisperspectivetoillustrateareaswhereamoredeliberateapproachtocharacterdevelopmentmaybebeneficial.LEADERSHIPCHARACTERDEVELOPMENTANDBUSINESSPROGRAMSWepresentourargumentsregardingcharacterbuildingastheserelatetoleadershipdevelopmentinbusinessprograms.However,ourviewoflead-ershipisnotfocusedonpowerorposition,butratheronthecapacityofindividualstobringthebestofthemselvestosupportandenableothers,ensuretheorganizationstheyworkwithachieveatthehighestlevel,andindoingso,contributetosociety.Althoughourviewofleadershipisnotboundbyposition,weacknowledgethatthecan-vasonwhichindividualsexerciseleadershipbe-comeslargerastheyriseintheorganizationhierarchy.Crossan,Vera,andNanjad(2008)provideause-fulframeworkwithwhichtogaugeanindividual’sabilitytomasteressentialleadershipprocessesatvariouslevels:self,others,andtheorganization.Leadershipofselfrefersspecificallytodevelopingpositivecharacterstrengthssuchashumilityandopen-mindedness,aswellasthecapabilityofself-awarenessasamechanismforcontinuallearning.Leadershipofothersspeakstotheresponsibilityofpositiveinterpersonalrelationshipsthatleadersmustcultivatewithfollowersandpeersinordertoleadeffectively,whileleadershipoftheorganiza-tionreferstoaleader’scriticalroleofaligningthenonhumanpartsoftheorganization—strategy,structure,systems,andenvironment—todelivercompetitiveadvantage.Leadershipatallthreelevelsisrequiredtoensuresustainedfirmperfor-mance(Crossanetal.,2008).Weseecharacterplayingoutatallthreelevels,bothinwhatwedowithourstudentsatthecourselevel,andalsoforourselves,aseducators,inthecontextofourownorganizations.WealsoneedtoconsidertheteachingofcharacterinthecontextoftheportfolioofcoursestaughtatbusinessschoolsIfwebelievethatourstudentsarelargelyincapableofdevelopingtheskillstodealwithcomplexsituations,wewouldalsostopteachingstrategy,finance,operationsmanagement,andmarketing.2013291Crossan,Mazutis,Seijts,andGandz
inadditiontoteachingcharacterinacourseorcoursesexclusivelydedicatedtodoingso.Al-thoughthesepointsareinterrelated,weunpackthembyexaminingseveralsalientelements:in-fusingcharacterdevelopmentinallcoursestaughtinbusinessschools,characterdevelopmentindedicatedcourses,andimplicationsforfacultyandbusinessschoolcultureandcapability.InfusingCharacterDevelopmentinAllCoursesLeadersneedcharacter,competencies,andcom-mitmenttodothechallengingandrewardingworkofleadership(Gandz,Crossan,Seijts,&Stephen-son,2010;Thompson,Grahek,Phillips,&Fay,2008).Webelievethatmostbusinessschoolshavefo-cusedtime,energy,andresourcesinonlyononeofthesethreeleadershipdomains—developinglead-ershipcompetencies.Muchofwhatwedointheclassroom,forexample,focusesonimpartingcoreknowledge,largelyinafunctionalparadigm:fi-nance,marketing,operationsmanagement,ac-counting,organizationalbehavior,strategy,andsoforth.Furthermore,manyschoolshaveacknowl-edgedthatitisnotonly“what”weteachbut“how”weteachitthatdevelopsimportantcompetenciessuchasteamworkandcommunication.Regardlessofwhetherweteachaccounting,finance,ororga-nizationalbehavior,wealsohavetheopportunitytodevelopastudent’scharacter.Forexample,therearetimeswherecharacterdevelopmentmaybeinthebackdropofthesessioncontentandothertimeswhereitmaybethees-senceofthediscussion.Anaccountingcoursecouldincludearole-playingmodulewherestu-dentspracticevoicingtheirdiscomfortwithambig-uousauditingpracticestohelpdevelopcharacterstrengthsofhonestyandintegrity(Gentile,2010;Melé,2005).Amarketingcoursecouldaddaservice-learningexercise,suchasdevelopingamarketingplanforalocalcharitableorganizationtohonestudents’coursecontentskillswhilesimul-taneouslydevelopingcharacterstrengthsofgen-erosityandbenevolence(Hartman&Beck-Dudley,1999).Astrategycoursecouldincorporatereactionpaperstoheatedcasedebatesintendedtoin-creasecharacterstrengthsofperspectiveandself-regulation(e.g.,TheFunctionoftheFirm;andwhetherthefocusshouldbeoncreatingshare-holdervalueorstakeholdervalue)wherestudentsreflectonhowtheirpersonalvalues,beliefs,orattitudesaffectedthewaytheyapproachedtheethicalissuessurfacedintheclassroomdiscussion.Thechallenge,however,isthatcharacterdevel-opmentoccursataverypersonallevel;itisnotsomethingthatonesimply“knows”oracquiresfromreadingaboutit.Rather,characterstrengthssuchascourageorhumilitycanbelearnedwhileintheprocessoflearningaboutfunctionalcompe-tenciesthroughhowthestudentengagesthelearningexperience.Forexample,wehavecount-lessexamplesofstudentswhoengagethelearn-ingprocessinalessthanhumbleorhonestman-ner,orwithgreatfear,anditisthesespecificinstancesthatpresentanopportunitytofocusonthedevelopmentofcharacter.However,manyfacultywouldnotconsiderittheirroleorresponsibilitytocontributetothede-velopmentofcharacter,andthosethatdoseeitastheirresponsibilityareoftennotsurehowtogoaboutit.Itissafetosaythatthereisstillplentyofskepticismaroundwhethercharactercanbetaught,andifitweretobetaughtthatitshouldremaininthedomainoffacultyinbusinessethicsororganizationalbehavior.Wewillreturntothisthemelater.Weconcludebysuggestingthatthreethingsarerequiredforfacultytoembedcharacterdevelop-mentwithincurrentfunctionalcompetencycourses.First,ittakesawarenessthatwhenweconsidertheprocessoflearning,thereistremen-dousopportunitytodevelopcharacterinallcourses.Second,itrequiresownershipamongfac-ultythatitisboththeirroleandresponsibilitytodevelopcharacterwhilealsodeliveringcoreknowledge.Third,itrequirescharacterdevelop-mentofthefacultymembersthemselvestoengagethisprocess.Wediscussthispointinmoredetailinthefinalsection.CharacterDevelopmentinDedicatedCoursesInspiteofthepromiseheldforthindevelopingcharacteracrossallcourses,thereisalsotheop-portunityfordedicatedcoursesthatfocusontheroleofleadershipcharacteranditsdevelopment.Regardlessofwhetherweteachaccounting,finance,ororganizationalbehavior,wealsohavetheopportunitytodevelopastudent’scharacter.292JuneAcademyofManagementLearning&Education
However,leadershipcourseswithinbusinessschoolsoftenfocusondevelopingleadershipskillsatoneparticularlevelratherthantacklingtheimportanceofleadershipasaskillrequiredacrosslevels.Forexample,manyprogramsincludecoursesonmanagingpeople(levelofothersandgroup)orleadingchange(leveloftheorganiza-tion),butdonotnecessarilyoffercoursesaddress-ingleadershipofself.However,anintentionalfocusonleadershipofself—especiallythecapabilitiesofself-awarenessandreflection—hasbeenshowntohaveanimpor-tantimpactongroupandorganizationaloutcomes.Forexample,self-awarenesshasbeenidentifiedasacriticalcomponentofauthenticleadershiptheory(George,2003;Luthans&Avolio,2003),whichinturnhasbeenshowntobeanimportantdeterminantofoutcomessuchasorganizationalcommitment,thesatisfactionemployeeshavewiththeirsupervisor,andorganizationalcitizenshipbehavior(Walumbwa,Avolio,Gardner,Wernsing,&Peterson,2008).Assumingthatthebusinesscur-riculumalreadyhascoursesthataddressleader-shipofothersandoftheorganization,whatcanbedonethen,fromacontentperspective,tofacilitatestudentlearningregardingleadershipofself?Webeginwiththepremisethatwhenitcomestocharacterdevelopmenttherearethreeprimarygaps.First,manyindividualsarenotawareofanymodelsofvirtues,characterstrengths,andvalues,andhenceataminimum,thereisaneedtoexposestudentstolearningopportunitiesthatenablethemtouncovertheseelements.Second,manyin-dividualsareunawareofwheretheystandrela-tivetocharacterdevelopment,particularlygiventhatmosthavenotspenttimethinkingorreflectingabouttheircharacter.Hence,thereisanimportantreflectivediagnosticelementtodevelopingchar-acter.Last,closingthegapbetweenknowinganddoingisalifelongjourney,muchofwhichmustoccurincontext,andhence,experiencingcharac-terdevelopmentisnecessary.Severalresearchershavesuggestedpotentialpedagogicalapproachestoteachingcharacter,in-cludingincreasedtraininginethicaldecision-makingskills,experientialmethodsthatchallengeimplicitcognitivebiases,reflectionexercisesde-signedtosurfacedissonancebetweenthetypeofpersononeisandthetypeofpersononemightwishtobecome,andmentoring.Werevieweachinturn.IncreasedTraininginEthicalDecision-MakingSkillsIncreasedtraininginethicaldecision-makingskillscanpositivelyimpactstudents’levelofmoraldevelopmentandthusleadtomoreethicalbehaviorsassociatedwithpositivecharacterstrengths.Forexample,Mintz(1996),Hartman(2006),andFalkenbergandWoiceshyn(2008)alladvocatetheuseofthecasemethodtohelpstu-dentsthinkthroughtheethicaldecision-makingprocess.Thisisbecauseawell-taughtcasecreatesawarenessoftheethicalissue,allowsforthecrit-icaljudgmentofalternatives,andencouragestheformulationofanintentiontoactethically(e.g.,theMerckandtheMectizandecision,orTheParableoftheSadhu).ComerandVega(2008)similarlypro-motetheuseofethicaldecision-makingscenariostohelpsurfaceindividualdifferencesinvaluesandtoconditionstudentstoapplyethicalframe-workstodecisionmakingingeneral.Casestudiescanalsoillustratehowlittlehelpcertainethicaltheoriesarewhenoneencountersahighlyambig-uouscontext.However,othershavesuggestedthatcasestud-ies,eveninethicaldecisionmaking,areinade-quateinpromotingcharacterdevelopmentinthattheyprioritizecriticalthinkingskillsaboveallotherabilities,andthus,donotadequatelyengagestudents’personalvaluesorvirtues(Hill&Stew-art,1999;Melé,2005).Rather,studentslearntheimportanceofknowingthevariousethicalframe-worksandbeingabletoemploytheseasdecision-makingcriteria,butthisdoesnotsubsequentlyguaranteeethicalbehaviorinambiguouscontexts(Gentile,2010).Numerousstudieshaveshownthatincreasedlevelsofmoralreasoningandintentionstoactdonotnecessarilyleadtoaction(Blasi,1980;Geva,2000).Assuch,weagreewithAristotlethatcharacterisnotsomethingthatcanbelearnedfromatextbookorthroughlectureformat.Justasreadingacompany’scodeofethicsorattendingamandatorycorporateconductsessionisunlikelytoinfluenceemployeeethicalbehavior,simplylearn-ingaboutthedifferentethicalframeworksinarotemannerwillbeinsufficienttoshapecharacter.Forexample,asHillandStewart(1999:183)argued:“Teachingethics,whileanimportantstartingpoint,fallsshortoftheultimategoal—developingvirtuouspeople.”Theremustbeastrongerfocusonethicsimplementationinthenewcasestudieswedevelop.Thiswouldbringcasesclosertotheexperientialmethodsdescribedbelow.2013293Crossan,Mazutis,Seijts,andGandz
ExperientialMethodsManyauthorshavesuggestedtheuseofmoreex-perientialmethodstohelpstudentsmovefromknowingwhatisgoodtoactuallydoinggood(Han-nah&Avolio,2010;Hill&Stewart,1999).Forexam-ple,role-playing—wherestudentsareputintocharacter-stretchingsituations—canservetohigh-lightexistingcognitivebiasesordominantbehav-ioralpreferencesandactasinterventionsinposi-tivecharacterdevelopment(Schmidtetal.,2009).Role-playsallowstudentstotryonanother’sfeel-ings,thoughts,orbehaviorsbyactingouttheac-tionsofrealorimaginarycharactersintherelativesafetyofalearningenvironment(Mintz,1996).Althoughusuallyemployedinethicaljudgmentexercises,role-plays—whencombinedwithfeed-backandgoalsetting—canalsobeusedeffec-tivelytotrainstudentsincarryingthroughwiththeimplementationofethicaldecisions.Forexample,intheGivingVoicetoValuescurriculum,role-playingmodulesaredesignedtodevelopstudents’characterstrengthsthatcanbeusedtohelpstu-dentslearnwhattosayanddoiftheyweregoingtoactontheirvaluesinvariousethicallychalleng-ingbusinessscenarios(Gentile,2010).Theuseofsimulationsorexperientialexercisesiscommoninnumerousprofessions—medicine,policing,fire-fighting,managementofnuclearpowerfacilities,airlinesandsoforth—totrainanddevelopindivid-uals.Thesesimulationsrequiredecisionsandasetofspecificactionstobeinitiatedinambiguousyetrealisticsituations.Theseexercisesoftenad-dresstheintangiblesoftheinterpersonalandemo-tionalresponsesthatareassociatedwithdecisionmakingandsubsequentactions.Thusthesesimu-lations—ofwhichtherole-playisjustoneexam-ple—providepowerfulteachingmomentsandop-portunitiesforstudentstoreflectandlearn.Forexample,weteamed-upwithlocalfirefight-erswhotookseniorexecutivesthroughaseriesofmockrapidrescueinterventiondrillsattheirtrain-ingfacilities,includingrescuingdummiesfromasmoke-filledbuilding.Thissimulationembeddedtraditionallessonsaroundleadership,communi-cation,andteamwork,aswellashighlightedtheimportanceofcharacterinsuccessfullycompletingtheexercises.Infeedbacksessionswiththefire-fighters,executivestalkedopenlyabouthowthedrillsraisedtheirappreciationandunderstandingoftheroleofvirtuesandcharacterstrengthssuchashumility,perseverance,courage,gratitude,pru-dence,andhumor—linkingtheseeasilyandread-ilytocharacterstrengthsrequiredinorganiza-tionalsuccess.Service-learningopportunities,wherestudentsareengagedindifferentcommunityoutreachpro-grams,havesimilarlybeenshowntoimproveeth-icaldecision-makingabilities,andhence,tode-velopcharacterstrengthssuchascompassion,understanding,andtolerance(Hill&Stewart,1999).Theseexperientialmethodscanrangefromvolunteeringinnot-for-profitorganizations,topre-paringbusinessplansforcharities,toassistinginbuildingahouseforHabitatforHumanity.Severalrecentarticlesinthisjournalhavedemonstratedthepositiveimpactofservice-learningprogramsonraisingstudentawarenessofethicalissues,developingaresponsiblemind-set,andengagingmoralvalues(Brower,2011;Pless,Maak,&Stahl,2011).Service-learningmethodsarealsoparticu-larlyeffectiveincombinationwithreflectionexer-cises(Brower,2011),whichwediscussnext.ReflectionLeadershipresearchershavelongsuggestedthateffectiveleadersneedtodevelopself-awarenessandreflectioncapabilities.However,thenecessityofthesestrengthsforleadinginaturbulentenvi-ronmenthaveonlyrecentlyregainedpopularityinleadershiptheories,suchastranscendent,authen-tic,primal,andlevel-5leadership(Avolio&Gardner,2005;Collins,2001;Crossanetal.,2008;Goleman,Boyatzis,&McKee,2002).Authenticlead-ershipdevelopment,forexample,stressestheim-portanceofself-awarenessthroughreflectioninassessingthecongruencyofone’spersonalvalues,beliefs,feelings,andactionswithhowtheseplayoutinorganizationalsettings(Ilies,Morgeson,&Nahrgang,2005).Gardnerandhiscolleaguesar-guedthatauthenticleadershiphasfourkeycom-ponents:awareness,orknowledgeandtrustinone’sthoughts,feelings,motives,andvalues;un-biasedprocessing,orobjectivity,aboutandaccep-tanceofone’spositiveandnegativeattributes;be-havior,oractingbasedonone’struepreferences,values,andneedsratherthanmerelyactingtopleaseothers,securerewards,oravoidpunish-ments;andrelationalorientation,orachievingandvaluingtruthfulnessandopennessinone’scloserelationships(Gardner,Cogliser,Davis,&Dickens,2011).Theyalsoconcludedthatthereis“disagree-mentwithintheALliteratureabouttheinclusionofethicsasacorecomponent”(1129).Nevertheless,thereappearstobeastrongsentimentthatthereis294JuneAcademyofManagementLearning&Education
amoralelementtoauthenticleadership,suggest-inganopportunitytoinjectavirtuesandcharacter-basedperspectivetoauthenticleader-shipexercisesdesignedtodeepenself-reflection.Forpedagogy,theroleofreflectionasacompo-nentofanundergraduatebusinessethicscourse,bothasaguidedandasanindividualactivity,hasbeenshowntoincreasecognitivemoraldevelop-mentinbusinessstudents(Schmidtetal.,2009),whichinturnhasbeenlinkedtoenhancedethicaldecisionmaking(Kish-Gephartetal.,2010;O’Fallon&Butterfield,2005).Throughjournaling,reaction,orreflectionpaperactivities,studentsen-gageinaformofinductivereasoningwhereab-stractconceptsareconnectedtoreal-lifeexamples(Hill&Stewart,1999).Petriglieri,Wood,andPetriglieri(2011)demonstratehowdedicatedre-flectiveengagementthroughprofessionalcounsel-ingcanincreaseparticipantself-awareness.Stuebs(2011)advocatestheuseofcharacterjour-nalstoadvancecharacterdevelopmentthroughself-reflection.Novels,texts,plays,poetry,andotherliteraturecanalsobeusedtoenhancestu-dentreflectiononethicalsituations(vonWeltzienHoivik,2009).Thesetechniquesallowonetomovefromthequestion“Whatistherightcourseofac-tioninthissituation?”toamorecharacter-basedframing,suchas“WhatkindofpersondoIwanttobe?”(Audi,2012).MentoringLast,mentorscansupplementthelearningorin-sightsgainedfromthesereflections.Mentorssharetheirexperiences—bothgoodandbad—andimpartpersonalknowledgeinareasthatarechal-lengingforstudents,includingbusinesssituationsthatinvolveethicaldilemmas.Studentscanlearnfromsuchreal-worldexperiencesandalsoreceivehands-onsupportandcoachingtopracticeanddeveloptherequisiteskillstodotherightthinginchallengingsituations.Numerousstudieshaveshownthatdevelopingstrongmentoringrelation-shipsisaneffectiveapproachinthedevelopmentofleaders(Allen,Eby,Poteet,Lentz,&Lima,2004;O’Brien,Biga,Kessler,&Allen,2010).Theabovetechniques—skillstraining,experien-tialmethods,reflectionexercises,andmentoring—representbutsomeofmanypossibleapproachestocharacterdevelopment.Whenconsideringtheuseoftheseapproacheswithvariousaudiences(undergraduate,graduate,andexecutive),wehavefoundasmuchvarianceinreceptionandapplica-tionoftheconceptsandapproacheswithinanaudienceasthereisbetweenaudiences.Golemanetal.(2002)reportedthatanexplicitfocusonde-velopingstudents’leadershipofself-skills,regard-lessofage,hasademonstratedimpactonindivid-ualself-awarenesscapabilities.Theimplicationisthatleadershipcharacterdevelopmentisaverypersonalprocess,andeachindividualengagesthematerialinadifferentway.Regardlessofageandworkexperience,individualsdifferonimportantelementssuchastheircapacityforself-reflection,life-changingexperiences,andtheiropennesstochange.Oneoftheprimaryimpedimentstoimplementa-tionmaybefacultyuneaseinteachingsomeofthesemoremicropsychologicalmethods.Nothav-ingadvanceddegreesinpsychology,orbeingcer-tifiedintheuseofassessmenttools,facultymaybehesitanttoapplyabatteryofdiagnosticteststostudentslesttheyopenahornet’snestofissuestheyfeelill-equippedtoaddress.However,leader-shipofself,andinparticular,characterdevelop-mentareessentialtoeffectiveleadership,andhence,wecannotturnourbacksonthiscriticalelementofleadershipdevelopment.Thuswenowturnourattentiontotheimplica-tionsforfacultyandbusinessschoolsaswecon-siderimplementingthisagenda.Ensuringade-quatecoverageofthecontentofleadershipprocessesaddressesonlypartoftheproblemincharacterdevelopment.Whileonemightobjec-tivelydiscusswhatcontentandwhatpedagogicaltechniquesshouldbeincludedinthebusinesscur-riculum,whatislessoftenconsideredishowis-suesofcharacterareimplicitlyaddressedinlead-ershipdevelopmentinbusinesscurricula.Hereweturntheleadershiplensonourselvestoassesshowweareimplicitlyteachingcharactertostu-dentsatthelevelofself,others,andtheorganization.ImplicationsforFaculty—LeadershipofSelfJustasweadvocateleadershipofselftoourstu-dents,somustwebelieveinitsimportanceasappliedtoourselvesasbusinessschoolfaculty.Whatvalues,beliefs,orattitudesdoweuncon-sciouslyholdthatmaybebiasingourpedagogicalapproachtoleadershipdevelopment?BuildingontheworkofPetersonandSeligman(2004),McGovernandMiller(2008)proposeasetofvirtuesandcharacterstrengthsasappliedtoteachingandlearningthatcanserveasanen-2013295Crossan,Mazutis,Seijts,andGandz
lighteningself-reflectionexerciseforleadershipeducators.Forexample,whenteaching,doweevaluatealltheperspectivesandintellectualcon-tributions,evenifsomemaybecontrarytoourpersonalbeliefs,thusdisplayingthecharacterstrengthsofopen-mindednessandcriticalthink-ingreflectiveofthevirtueofwisdom?Dowetruth-fullydeclareourvaluesandmodelhowthisqual-ityisnecessaryforbuildingtrustingrelationships,thusdisplayingthecharacterstrengthsofintegrityandauthenticityassociatedwiththevirtueofcour-age?Dowecommunicateourpersonallimitationsandacknowledgeourweaknesses,thusdisplay-ingthecharacterstrengthofhumilityassociatedwiththevirtueoftemperance?AccordingtoAristotle,onekeytodevelopingvirtuouscharacterstrengthsisobservingandthenmodelingthevirtuousbehaviorofothers(Aristotle,1999).Inemulatingthisgoodnessinothersandthroughthepracticeofthevirtues,onetrainsone-selftoactinaccordancetothevirtues(Mintz,1996).Givenourauthority-imbuedroleasprofessors,businesseducatorsnaturallyserveasprofessionalrolemodels,andtherefore,serveascharactermod-elsbydefaultaswell(Hill&Stewart,1999).Whetherweclaimtouseavalue-neutralpedagog-icalapproach,wenonethelessimplicitlysetanexampleofgood/badorright/wrongbehaviorforourstudentsbyourbehavior,bothinandoutsideofclass.Ifwewishtodevelopleaderswithinteg-rity,wemustactwithintegrityourselves.Ifwewishtodevelopleaderswithcourage,wemustactcourageouslyourselves.Whenwefailtoactinwaysthatdemonstratethesecharacterstrengths—bypanderingtostudentstogetgoodteachingevaluationsorbybeingunfairinourmarkingschema,asexamples—thenwearereinforcingex-periencesthatcontributetodevelopingcharacterweaknessesbothinourselvesaswellasinourstudents.Reflectionasamethodfordevelopingleader-shipofselfisthusnotlimitedtostudents.Educa-torsaswellcanusereflectiontechniquestoeval-uateourreactionstocriticalteachingmoments,eitherindividuallyorthroughguideddiscussionswithotherfacultymembers.Recallingspecificclassroomincidents,evaluatingourpedagogicaloptionsinresponsetotheexperience,andinter-pretingouractionsinlightofthecharacterstrengthswewishtoembodycancreatelearningopportunities.Forexample,ifonehascaughtastudentplagiarizingtheworkofothersonatake-homeexam,yetdoesnothingimmediateinre-sponse,thereisanopportunitytoreflectonthisdecision,evaluatethealternativeoptions,andin-terpretthisbehaviorinlightofthevirtuesorchar-acterstrengthsonewouldliketohavemodeledanddevelopedbystudents.Sharingreflectionsto-rieswithotherfacultymemberscreatesadditionalleadershipofselflearningopportunities(Mc-Govern&Miller,2008).Ourinclinationisthatthistypeofself-evaluationamongbusinesseducatorsisuncommon.ImplicationsforFaculty—LeadershipofOthersAsfacultymembers,wearealsoresponsiblefordevelopingpositiverelationshipswithothers,withintheclassroom,thedepartment,andthebusinessschoolasawhole.Withintheclassroom,weareaccountableforsettingrulesofengage-mentandnormsofappropriatebehavior.Ifweencouragecollaborativelearninggroupsasaped-agogicaltool,thenwearealsoresponsibleforestablishingproperguidelinesforacceptablecon-ductwithinthesegroups,andwecannotabdicatethisresponsibilitywhenissuesofcharactersur-face.Forexample,howwechoosetodealwiththeoft-heardcomplaintofthefree-ridinggroupmem-berleavesalastingimpressiononstudentsaboutwhattheprofessorvalues.Ifwedonothing,cheat-ingbehaviorsbecomeknownasacceptable,andthisisamplifiedwhenrepeatedoffensesgowith-outdeterrent.If,ontheotherhand,thefree-riderisconfrontedandreprimanded,studentslearnthatthisisnotacceptableconductandthattheprofes-sorvalueshonesty,integrity,andfairnessasde-sirablecharacterstrengths.Leadershipofothersalsoincludeshowweman-ageourrelationshipswithotherbusinessschoolfaculty.Businessschoolsseemtobenotoriousforcreatingoratleasttoleratingfiefdomsandsilosbetweengroups,somethingthatwewouldadmon-ishinotherorganizations.Inmanyinstancesitappearsfacultyaremorealignedwiththeirpartic-ularfunctionaldisciplinethantheyarewiththeirorganization.Unfortunately,similartothedebatearoundbusinessethicsingeneral,thesefissureserodethecollectivecapabilityoftheorganizationtofosteracoherentapproachtotheteachingofcharacter(Evans,Treviño,&Weaver,2006).Thislackofcoherencemakesattemptstodealwithbreachesofcharacterparticularlyproblematicfortheorganization.296JuneAcademyofManagementLearning&Education
ImplicationsforFaculty—LeadershipoftheOrganizationAseducationalinstitutions,weteachcharacterbyprovidinganenvironmentthateitherfosters,ordoesnotfoster,virtuousbehaviorandwherevirtu-ousbehaviorseithercan,orcannot,beobservedanddiscovered.Perhapsthebest-knownexampleofinstitutionalizedcharacterdevelopmentisatWestPoint,theoldestmilitaryacademyintheUnitedStates.AresearchprojectintotheprocessesbywhichWestPointdeliversontheirmissionofcharacterformationrevealedthattheinstitutionusesbothtraditionalhumanresourcemanage-mentfunctions(e.g.,recruitment,selection,jobrotationandtraining)andmoreprogressivepro-cesses(e.g.,organizationallearning,organiza-tionaldesign,andcultureshaping)toinstillposi-tivecharacterstrengthsinitscadets(Offstein&Dufresne,2007).Thecruxofthecharacterdevelop-mentprogramisWestPoint’sHonorCode,whichreads“Acadetwillnotlie,cheat,steal,ortoleratethosethatdo.”However,thespiritofthecodeistaughtsuchthatamorepositiveframingisalsoemphasized,namely,thatthecadetwillnotlie,butalsothatthecadetwillbetruthful.TheteachingofcharacterstrengthsatWestPointpermeatestheorganization’sstrategies,structures,rules,andprocedures.Forexample,ad-missionsofficersplaceasignificantemphasisonevidenceofselflessactivitiesintheirrecruitmentprocess,ratherthanrelyingexclusivelyonGPAandSATscores.Theorganizationaldesignofchar-acterdevelopmentincludessocializationpro-cessesthatbeginpriortoarrival(e.g.,communica-tionmaterialsregardingtheHonorCode),disseminationofvaluesandethicsguides,andanintensive9-weekbasictrainingonvaluesuponarrival(e.g.,includingclassesonwhatlying,steal-ing,andnontolerationmean)aswellasspecificclassesthroughoutcadets’tenure,includingcoursesonhonor,ethicalliving,andrespectfordiversity.TheHonorCodeisthenmodeledbothformallyandinformallynotonlybyfacultyandstaff,butalsobyseniorcadetswhoareentrustedwithtrainingnewrecruits.Ethicalbreachesareusedaslearningopportunitiesthatincludeexten-sivementoringandreflectionexercises,andtheeffectivenessofthehonorsystemistestedinex-perientialexercises(Offstein&Dufresne,2007).Inshort,characterdevelopmentisembeddedintheveryheartoftheorganization’sstrategies,struc-tures,andprocesses.Itisimportanttonotethatevenwiththiskindoffocusoncharacter,organi-zationslikeWestPointarevulnerable,asseenintherecentrapelawsuitfiledagainstWestPointrepletewithallegationsofacover-up.Inleadingattheorganizationallevelinbusi-nessprogramsthen,weneedtoassesshowourstrategies,structures,andprocessesservetode-velop(ornotdevelop)characterinourbusinessrecruits.Whetherconsciousornot,weimpartwhatwevaluebywhomweadmit,bythecriteriaweuse,byhowwesocializethemtotheschool’scul-tureandnormsofappropriatebehavior,bythecriteriaweuseinallocatingstudentawards,inhowwedealwithethicaltransgressions,amongotherstructuralinfluencesandcareermanage-mentpractices.Wefirstsignalwhatgetsvaluedinourrecruitmentmaterials,whichmayemphasizestartingsalariesoverhonor,integrity,andvalor.Further,theverydesignofourcurriculumitself—fromtheselectionofaguidingmissionorvisiontotheselectionorexclusionofvarioustopicsforin-structiontothecasesorteachingmaterialsweuse—alsoindicateswhatgetsvalued.Similarly,whenwehavesystemsthatallowcheatingtogounaddressed,we,inourroleasleadershipeduca-tors,arecomplicitindemonstratingthathonestyandintegrityarenotvaluedascharacterstrengths.IncontrasttoWestPointthen,adeem-phasisoncharacterdevelopmentsuggestsarealgapinbusinesseducationleadership.Whilewehavearticulatedtheimplicationsforfaculty,weacknowledgethatthepointswehaveraisedrepresentaverytallorder.Themagnitudeofthechangeswehaveoutlinedaresignificant,andtoexpecteasyandwidespreadadoptionofourrecommendationsisunrealistic.Forexample,somefacultymembersmaynothavemuchinterestinthevirtueapproachtobusinessethics;insteadespousingtheviewofMiltonFriedmanwhichis,roughly,toaimatthebottomline,that’swhatshareholdershavearighttodemand,andthat’swhatcontributestothewell-beingofsocietyinthelongrun.Ourexperiencehasbeenamoreevolu-tionaryprocesswherebyfacultymembersareWefirstsignalwhatgetsvaluedinourrecruitmentmaterials,whichmayemphasizestartingsalariesoverhonor,integrity,andvalor.2013297Crossan,Mazutis,Seijts,andGandz
drawntothepotentialthatexiststodeveloplead-ershipcharacterwithinthemselvesandtheirstu-dents.Theirdesireisnotboundedbydisciplinebutratherbytheirpersonalexperienceandread-inesstoembracethepossibilities.Wedonotseethisassomethingthatcouldbemandatedinbusi-nessschools.Suchanapproachwouldlikelyback-fire.Rather,werecommendaprocessthatencour-agesandenablesinterestedfaculty.Adoptionofwhatweareproposingisnotdependentonothers,althoughaswediscussinthenextsection,itisnotasolitaryendeavor.IMPLEMENTATIONANDAPPLICATIONAlthoughithasbeenourintenttoprovideideasforimplementationandapplicationthroughoutthisessay,hereweshareourexperienceandexperi-mentationwithdevelopingleadershipcharacterinacoursewespecificallydesignedforthatpurpose.ThecourseisofferedasanMBAelectivethatrunsover5weekswith10sessionsof3hours.Thefirstsessionislargelyanexplorationofthecorecon-cepts(virtues,characterstrengths,values,andsoforth)aswellasaninvitationtothestudentstoengageinthelearninganddiscoveryprocess.Piv-otaltothelearningexperienceissettingthetonethatthiswillbeadifferentkindofcourse.Studentsareinvitedtointroducethemselvesusingasymbolorobjectthatsignifieswhotheyare.Successfulexecutivesfromthebusinesscommunityareas-signedasmentorstothestudents(Allenetal.,2004),suchthateachmentorhastwoorthreestu-dents.Mentorsareinvitedtothefirstclasstogreetthestudents,sharetheirexperience,andbegintodeveloparapportwiththeirmenteesthatcontin-uesthroughoutthecourseandoftenbeyond.Wehavesomeprovocativevideos,poems,andper-spectivesdesignedtoignitetheinterestandcuri-osityofthestudentsinwhatatfirstappeartobeveryabstractconcepts.Studentsalsokeepreflec-tivejournals(Stuebs,2011)throughoutthecourse.Afterthefirst3-hourclass,oneofthestu-dentswrote:Today’sclasswasagreathelpindefiningingreaterdetailmygoalsfortheclassandtheimpactitwillhaveonmypersonalandpro-fessionallife.ItwasextremelyinsightfulandhumblingtolistentoclassmatesintroducethemselvesonadeeperlevelthanIhavere-latedtomanyofthemandtohearthelifelongjourneysthatthementorsforthecourseareon.Iseethiscoursemorenowasawaytohelpmebecomecomfortablewiththelifelongself-reflectionjourneyIwilltakeovermylifeandacoursethatwillprovidemethere-sourcesbothtacticaltoolsandsupportnet-worktosuccessfullycompletethisjourney.Iamveryexcitedoverthecourseofthisweektobetterdefinemypersonalphilosophyoflife.IfindthatforthemostpartIhaveasetofcorevaluesthathelpguidethedecision[s]Imakeinlife,butstruggletoarticulatethesevaluesinagenuineandthoughtfulmanner.MyhopefortheremainingclassesthisweekisthatIwillstartthisprocessandthroughmoreself-reflectiondefineatamuchdeeperlevelthecorevaluesthatgovernmylifeandhaveanunderstandinghowtheywillimpactmyleadershipstyle.Anotherstudentwrote:ThroughoutthiscourseI’mexcitedtolearnaboutmyselfsoIcanbeaneffectiveleader,andnotjustintheworkplacebutwithinmycommunity.Beforereadingthearticleontran-scendentleadership,Ineverrecognizedinitsentirety,howimportanthavinganunder-standingandawarenessofselfis.Itobvi-ouslymakessense,aleaderwhodoesnotaligntheirvalueswiththevaluesoftheor-ganizationorstrategicdirectionwillnotbeabletoeffectivelygaintrustorrespectofhis/herteam.Onlybyhavingamorethoroughandin-depthunderstandingofselfcanaleadertheneffectivelybeabletodeliver.Thisentireconceptisobviouslyverynewtome.Inmypastexperience,employeeswereordinar-ilypromotedandputintoaleadershipposi-tionasaresultoftheirtechnicalcompeten-cies.Whilethisisdefinitelyimportant,sometimesagreateremphasisontechnicalaptitudecanfacilitatethepromotionofinef-fectiveleaders.I’mexcitedtoparticipateinthejourneythatIbelievethiscoursewilltakemeon.IamstillalittlehesitanttodelvedeepintomyselfasI’veneverputmyselfinasituationthatwouldcallformetodothat,andI’malittleanxioustoacknowledgemyweaknessesandbevulnerable.Iamquiteshyandreservedandthereforeamlookingforwardtopushingmyboundariesandleavingmycomfortzoneandultimatelygrowing.298JuneAcademyofManagementLearning&Education
Weusethevaluesinaction(VIA)diagnostictooltohelpthestudentsunpacktheirvirtuesandchar-acterstrengths(Peterson&Seligman,2004)andtheSchwarzvaluesurveytohelpthemself-assesstheirvalues(Schwartz,1996).ThemovieInvictushasprovenextremelyvaluableasameansforthestudentstoidentifycharacterstrengthsandvirtuesinNelsonMandelaandFrancoisPienaar,thecap-tainoftheSouthAfricanrugbyteam.Forexample,considerthepowerofthemovietohelpstudentsgraspthedepthofforgivenessMandelaexhibitedasheworkedtouniteacountryeventhoughhehadbeenincarceratedforalmost30years.Themoviealsoillustratesmanyotherelementssuchashumility,courage,perseverance,judgment,andempathy.Personallifestoriesareusedtohelpstudentsreflectonwhotheyareandwhytheyhavebecomethepersonstheyaretoday(George,2003;Petriglierietal.,2011;Shamir&Eilam,2005).Casestudiesarealsousedtoidentifytheseattributesinothers(Hartman,2006;Sadler-Smith,2012).Forex-ample,theCraigKielburgersix-partvideocaseseries,whichwascreatedforthecourse,waspro-found,asstudentshadthechancetowrestlewiththeissuesCraig(anactivistfortherightsofchil-dren)facedinthestrategicevolutionofhisnot-for-profitandfor-profitorganizations(FreetheChil-dren;andMetoWe).Theycouldseetheexerciseofcharacteranditsimpactonchoicesmade,asmanyofthechoiceswererootedincourage,justice,wis-dom,temperance,humanity,andtranscendence.ThereweremanyjournalentriesaboutCraig,andtheinspirationheprovidedwasevidentasre-vealedinthefollowingentry:UponreflectionofCraig’svisit,Ifindmyselfenergizedandre-motivatedtocontinueonthepaththatI’vechosen.I’mhumbledbythefactthatindividuals,likeCraig,canleadtheirlifeandmaketheirchoiceswithsuchconvictionatasimilarageasme.It’spossible!Potentialcanberealizedandputtowardthesocialgood.Allittakesisawillingnesstoact,con-victioninone’sbeliefs,andasparktolightthefire.WealsorelyonGentile’s(2010)GivingVoicetoValues(GVV)materialstohelpstudentsbridgeintentandbehaviorsasdepictedinFigure1.Sim-ilartothefindingsofarecentsurveyofMBAstu-dents(AspenInstitute,2008),themajorityofourstudentsalsorecognizedthattheyareill-equippedtofaceambiguousethicalissuesatwork,particu-larlyastheyanticipateenteringintosituationsthatareinconflictwiththeirvalues.TheGVVscriptingandrole-playingexerciseshelpedstu-dentsprepareforthesedifficultconversations.Courageandcandorwereembeddedintheexer-cisesweused.Thehighlightofthecoursewasthestudent-ledworkshopsinwhichgroupsselectoneofthesixvirtuesandpreparea1-hourworkshopfortheclassdesignedtohelptheirpeersunderstandthecharacterstrengthsassociatedwiththatvirtueandengagethemindevelopmentalexercisestodeepenthem.Forexample,toexaminethevirtueoftranscendence,weengagedanear-deathvisual-izationexperienceinordertohelpstudentscometotermswiththeirsenseofpurpose.Thefollowingjournalentrybyonestudentpro-videsagoodoverviewoftheentirecourseexperience:ImustadmitthatwhenIfirstsignedupforthiscourseIreallydidnotknowwhatIwasgettingmyselfinto.Ihavealwaysbeenareflectiveindividualwhotookthetimetowriteinajournalgrowingup.However,inuniversitythatreflectionpiecegotputonthebackshelfasschoolwork,labs,extracurricu-laractivitiesandjobsearchestookover.Thiscoursehasgivenmetheopportunitytoreig-nitemyreflectivesideanddiscussconceptsandideasthatIhaveneverhadtheopportu-nitytodoinaclassroomsetting.Ifoundthereflectioncomponentandtheabilitytodiscovermyselfandmyvaluestobethemostpreciouspartoftakingthiscourse.WhilemanyintheMBAclassspeculatedthatthiswouldbeaso-calledfluffcourse,Icannowconfidentlysaythatitwasnot.Thespeakersthatwerebroughtintodiscussvaluesystemsandleadershipstyleswerephenomenalandhavecontributedtomylearninginawaythattextbooksandcase-bookscouldnot.Furthermore,oneofthemostvaluablecomponentsthatIfoundtothiscoursewastheincorporationofmentors…Ifeelthatthementorsreallyofferedsomerealworldadvicefromtheirmanyexperiencesandenrichedmylearning.DuringthefirstcoupleofclassesIdidstrugglealittlebitasIfoundthediscussiontobesomewhatabstract.Theconceptsthat2013299Crossan,Mazutis,Seijts,andGandz
werediscussedseemedtobeoverlyphilo-sophicalandIwasnotsurewhereitwouldgo.However,[nameinstructor]clearlyhadavisionforthiscourseandasweprogressedanddidourownvaluesanalysisthewholecoursegraduallycametogetherforme.Ire-allylikedtheideaofstartingoffwithabstractconcepts,focusinginonwhatthoseconceptsmeantformeasanindividualgivenmyvaluesystemandultimatelyhowIwouldapplythoseconceptsinmylifemovingforward.SincetakingthiscourseIhavespokentoanumberofpeopleaboutitincludingalumniandmanywishthattheywouldhavehadtheopportunitytoexperiencethiscourseforthemselves.Ifeelthatitwasapivotalcom-ponentformeinthisMBAprogrambecauseattheendofthedayIcanlearnskillsbutvaluesmustbediscoveredandnurtured.Thiscoursedidthatforme.Andanotherjournalentryprovidesfurtherin-sightintotheimpactofthecourse:ThiscoursewasunlikeanyotherIhavetaken.IhaveneverfeltsoateasewithothersintheclassroomasIbecame.SeeinggrownmencryandrealizingthatagecamewithfeweranswersthanIhadpreviouslythoughtmademerealizehowyoungmyparentsprob-ablyfeelsometimes.Ithinkthisinsightintothehumanexperienceisapowerfultool.Ithasgivenmetheresolvetoneverstopsettingnewgoals.Toquestionpeoplewhothinktheyhavealltheanswersandfigureouttheworldforyourselfwithoutbeingafraidoftheinfor-mationwedon’thave.We’llneverhaveper-fectknowledge.Ithinkthiscoursemadememakepeacewithmyself.IthinkI’vewantedtoconformmorethanIshouldhave.It’sasurvivalmech-anismthatleadsyoutocompromisevaluesandvirtues.ThroughtheworkofMaryGen-tile,IhaveabetterscriptfortakingastandandtheVIAdiagnostichasgivenmethelex-icontodescribewhoIam—inwords.CONCLUSION—ITTAKESAVILLAGEOurobjectivehereinwastoargueforanincreasedattentiontoleadershipcharacterdevelopmentinbusinesseducation.Byfocusingoncharacterandhowthisisdevelopedattheindividual,group,andorganizationallevels,wehighlightedhowexistingpracticeshaveprivilegedtheteachingoffunc-tionalcontentovercharacterandhowwe,asfac-ulty,withindisciplines,andwithinbusinessschools,eitherdoordonotsupportvirtuouslead-ershipdevelopmentthroughourownbehaviors,relationships,andstructures.Mostimportant,weprovidedconcretesuggestionsonhowtointegrateafocusoncharacterdevelopmentintoexistingbusinessprograms,bothintermsofindividualcoursesaswellastheoverallcurriculum—provid-ingtheimplementationofanMBAelectiveonleadershipcharacteratourschoolasanexampleoftheseideasinapplication.Theprogramdirectorfortheundergraduateprogramhassincere-questedthatwedeliverthesamecourseinthatprogram.Weweremotivatedtopursuethisagendathroughourconversationswithexecutiveswhoex-pressedtheviewthatthereareshortcomingsinthedevelopmentofleadershipcharacterinbothbusi-nessschoolsandorganizations.Theseexecutiveswerelookingtobusinessschoolstoprovidelead-ershipinthisarea.Thechallengeforbusinessschoolstodeliveroncharacterdevelopmentissubstantial.Whiletheeffortsonthepartofoneortwoin-spiredfacultyactingalonemayfostercharacterdevelopmentinsomeindividuals,themagnitudeoftheneedforleadershipcharacterdevelopmentrequiresabroadcoalitiontomakesubstantialprogress(Sadler-Smith,2012).TheancientproverbattributedtotheIgboandYorubaregionsofNige-ria—“Ittakesavillagetoraiseachild”—impliesthatraisingachildisacommunaleffort.Thatis,theparents,theextendedfamily,andthebroadercommunity,allshareintheresponsibilityofrais-ingachild.Aristotlealsoimpliedthatvirtuesandcharacterstrengthscanonlybelearnedbyindi-vidualslivinginstrongandvirtuouscommunities.Weseethisproverbasametaphorforthedevel-opmentofleadershipcharacterinbusinessschools.Thebusinessschoolvillageencompassesanumberofimportantindividualsbeyondthefac-ultyfromthevariousfunctionaldisciplines.Itin-cludestheprogramdirectors—thosethatarere-sponsibleforleadingtheundergraduate,graduate,andexecutiveeducationprograms.Theseindividuals,alongsidethedeanofthebusi-nessschool,providethecontextfortheeduca-tionalexperienceand,throughtheirdecisionsandactions,signalinsubtleornot-so-subtlewaystheir300JuneAcademyofManagementLearning&Education
levelofsupportforthefocusoncharacterdevelop-ment.Ifthereisatruecommitmenttodevelopingleadersthatwillhaveapositiveimpactontheworld,wewouldexpectthedeantocommunicatetheimportanceoftheroleofcharacterinbusinesstothevariousaudiencesoftheschool.Inaddition,wewouldexpecttheprogramdirectorstosupportthedevelopmentofspecificcoursematerialsforthedevelopmentofcharacterandtosignalthatthisfocusisapillaroftheprogram.Boththedeanandtheprogramdirectorsareinpositionstopro-videtheresourcestothefacultytoencouragethemtodeveloptheirknowledgeandskillsrequiredtodeliveronthebuildingofcharacter.Alsoimpor-tantisthatthoseinleadershippositionsatthebusinessschoolactoninappropriatebehaviorandsignalbehavioralexamplesofvirtuouscharacterstrengths.Weareprivilegedthatourdeanhastakenaleadingroleinadvocatingfortheimpor-tanceofleadershipcharacterdevelopmentinthebusinessschool.Shehasdonesothroughnumer-ousinternalandexternalactivitiesincludingavisiblepresenceatthepractitionerroundtabledis-cussions,presentationsatfacultyandalumnievents,coauthorshiponleadershipcharacterpub-lications,speakingopportunitiestoexecutiveau-diences,andconsistentmessagingonthetopicwithinthepopularbusinesspress.Alumnicanalsoplayanimportantrole,asmem-bersofthebusinessschoolvillageandcanbecalledupontoassistinthedevelopmentofchar-acterbyservingasmentors,astheydidinourleadershipcharactercourse.Furthermore,alumnicouldoffertheirassistanceindevelopinglearningexperiencesthatfostercharacterdevelopment,suchascasestudies—eitherwrittenorliveones.Alumniareinauniquepositionwheretheycanprovideconcreteexamplesandadvicetothestu-dentsonhowtotransfertheirknowledgeandskillsfromaneducationalinstitutiontotheactualwork-place.Weneedpositiveexamplesofleadership,especiallycaseswhereindividualswerecalledupontodemonstratecharacterstrengthssuchasbravery,integrity,orpersistence.Studentsshouldbeexposedtoexamplesofbusinessleaderswhochosetodotherightthingandwhosedecisionsledtosignificantpositiveoutcomes.Suchleaderscouldarticulatetheirmotivationsandhowtheyovercamethechallengesinimplementingtheirde-cisions.Byprovidingstudentsmodelsofgoodbe-havior,weencouragethedevelopmentofthechar-acterstrengthsassociatedwiththatbehavior.Recruitersandthecompaniesthatemploybusi-nessschoolgraduatesalsoplayacrucialroleinleadershipcharacterdevelopment.Studentsfre-quentlyremarkthattheyseelittleontherecruitingagendathatsignalstheimportanceofcharacter.Whenrecruitersfocusonstudentmarksorhowcleverthestudentsareatsolvingproblems,theysendclearsignalstostudentsonwhatthecom-panyvalues,andthisisreflectedinwhatstudents’desirefromtheirbusinesseducation.Manybusi-nessschoolshaveadedicatedgroupofstaffwhoarethelinchpinbetweenthestudentsandrecruit-ers.Inourschooltheseindividualsareinakeypositiontoguiderecruitersontheprotocolofthebusinessschool,includingstudentexpectationsaboutcharacter,sincetheycoachorganizationstobeclearintheirrecruitingmessagesandconveywhattheyvalueandhowtheyliveit.Asapracticalmatter,thisessaycouldbeprovidedtorecruiterssothattheyunderstandtheirroleandtheexpec-tationofstudents.Asoneoftheexecutiveswetalkedtostated:“Ifyou’reinaninterviewtalkingtosomebodyandtheydonotcommunicatetoyouthatvaluesandintegrityareenormouslyimpor-tant,I’dbeoutoftherefasterthanyoucancounttothreebecausetherealityisthatfirstclassleaders,corporateorotherwise,whodon’tputintegrityandthosevaluesattheverytoparenotpeopleinmyviewthatyoushouldassociatewith(personalcom-munication).”Ourworkonleadershipcharacterhasledtoseveralinvitationstoworkwithcompa-niesonhowtheycanmovetheleadershipcharac-teragendaforward.Afocusoncharacterdevelop-mentthushasthepotentialtosignificantlyaffectpersonalsuccessinthetransitionfromstudenttoemployeeandeventually,tobusinessleaders.Last,theadmissionsdepartmentalsoplaysacrucialroleinthebusinessschoolvillageasthefirstpointofcontactintermsofstudents’under-standingofwhatgetsvaluedattheinstitution.Acommonquestionraisedbytheexecutiveswespoketowas“Areyouselectingtherightstudentsintotheprogram?”Intrinsicinthedefinitionofvirtuouscharacteristhatanindividual“notonlyactscourageously,temperately,justlyandsoonbutalsohasgoodreasonandagenuinedesirefordoingit.Thatis,themoralagentactsfromtherightmotive—tobevirtuous”(Mintz,1996:833).Areweselectingstudentsintoourbusinessprogramsthathaveagenuinedesiretoactvirtuously?Bergman,Westerman,andDaly(2010)suggestedthatalargepercentageofbusinessstudentsareinfactfunda-mentallynarcissisticandmotivatedprimarilybythedesiretobecomerich.Lan,Gowing,McMahon,2013301Crossan,Mazutis,Seijts,andGandz
Rieger,andKing(2008)foundthattheprimarymo-tivationalvalueofbusinessmajorsishedonism.Ifthisisthecase,howdowegetthemtobemoti-vatedtoactmorevirtuouslyorencouragethemtoengageinreflectivelearning?Mostschoolslookbeyondgradestounderstandtheprofileofthestudentwithrespecttoleadershipandextracurric-ularactivities.Therearemanywaysinwhichad-missiondepartmentscouldexpandtheircriteriaforrecruitmentandselection.Forexample,thead-missionsdepartmentatourschoollooksforspe-cificvalues,traits,andmotivesintheinterviewprocess,throughprobingquestions.Whilenotper-fect,theinterviewprocesstriestoidentifycharac-teristicssuchaspersonalaccountability,opennesstodifferentopinions,andtemperance.Questionsarebasedoncriticalincidents(Flanagan,1954).Thevillageextendstootherfacultiesoncampusthatcouldsupportthebusinessschoolinshapingthecharacterofitsstudents.Forexample,expertsinpsychologicalassessmentsandcounselingpsy-chologistsmayhelpfacultyduringaparticularcourse.Educationfacultytoomayhavecriticalin-sightsthathelptodevelopcharacter.Ourasser-tionisthatifwewanttomakeameaningful,ifnotsignificantleapforward,inthedevelopmentofleadershipcharacterthenwemust,inadditiontolookingatthephilosophyandbusinessliteratures,integratefindingsfromothersfieldssuchaspsy-chology,education,socialwork,thefieldofsports,andsoforth.Extraordinaryoutcomesmaybeachievedwhenanintegrativeapproachistaken,suchashasbeendemonstratedintheareaofsus-tainability(Kurlandetal.,2010).Similartothedebatearoundtheresponsibilityforbusinessethicseducationingeneral,itwillnodoubtbeachallengetohavethevariousdepart-mentscometogetherandtacklecharacterfromaninterdisciplinaryangle(Evansetal.,2006).Wehavefoundthatourworkinthisareahaspromptedgreatercollaborationbetweendisciplinesandseededjointresearchprojectswithcolleaguesinfinance(e.g.,theroleofcharacterinvalueinvest-ing)andmarketing(e.g.,leadershipcharacterandinfluencetactics).Someacademicinstitutionshavebeensuccessfulinimplementingpromisingnewwaystofostersuchcollaborations,forexam-plebyformingscholarlycommunitiesaroundcom-moninterestsand“big”questions,orbyadjustingpromotion-and-tenureguidelinestorecognizethatinterdisciplinaryworkisimportant,andlookingfavorablyuponindividualswhohavedemon-stratedatrackrecordofworkingwithcolleaguesfromdifferentdepartments.Someinstitutions—in-cludingourownuniversity,throughfundinginter-disciplinarydevelopmentinitiatives—havegoneasfarasfinanciallysupportingcollaborationbyprovidingfundingthatencouragestheinterdisci-plinaryresearchrequiredtotackleincreasinglysophisticatedresearchissues.Ourfocusonleadershipcharacterdevelopmentandtheviewthat“ittakesavillage”isentirelyconsistentwithGhoshal’s(2005)impassionedmes-sagetomembersofthevillagethatweneedtorethinkmanagementtheory,education,andprac-tice.Hearguedthat“bypropagatingideologicallyinspiredamoraltheories,businessschoolshaveactivelyfreedtheirstudentsfromanysenseofmoralresponsibility”(2005:76)andtoreinstateeth-icalormoralconcernsintothepracticeofmanage-ment,“analternativetheorycanonlyemergefromthecollectiveeffortsofmany”(88).Becausebusi-nessschoolshavebeencritiquedforfocusingonlyondevelopingmanagers’technicalcompetencies(Moore,2008),ouraimherewastoofferanap-proachthatsupplementsthattechnicalcompe-tencewithleadershipcharacter.Theideasinthisessayarenotjustapossibility.Theyarearealitythatexists.Buildingonthefind-ingsfromourconversationswithexecutives,wedesignedanMBAcoursethatintegratesmanyoftherecommendationswemakeherein(e.g.,skillstraining,experientialmethods,reflectionexer-cises,andmentoring)withtheexplicitgoalofin-troducingself-reflectionandafocusonvirtues,values,andcharacterstrengthsintothebusinesscurriculum.Ourpersonalexperienceisthatexpos-ingbothourstudentsandourselvesasfacultytothisprocesshasbeennotonlypossible,butalsoprofoundforallinvolvedasthecommentsfromthestudents’reflectivejournalsillustrate.Weac-knowledgethedifficultyindeterminingwhetheranyprogrammakesstudentsbehavemorevirtu-ouslyorethicallyasopposedtomakingthemmorefluentindiscussingethics.Ourapproachandideasfordevelopingleadershipcharacterareastartingpointfordiscussionandsubsequentini-tiatives.Validationoftheseideas,ofcourse,isrequired,andthisprocesstoooffersexcitingopportunities.Wethereforeendontheoptimisticnotethatthisfocusonleadershipcharacterdevelopmenthasnotonlybeenextremelywellreceivedbythestudentsinourleadershipcharactercourse,butthatithasalsobeenembracedbyourdean,programdirec-tors,facultyfromdisciplinesotherthanbusiness302JuneAcademyofManagementLearning&Education
ethicsandorganizationalbehavior,ouralumni,andrecruitingorganizations.Inpresentingthises-say,wehopethereforetohaveataminimumin-spirededucatorstoreflectontheirroleindevelop-ingleadersofcharacterthatcanmakeapositivedifferenceintheworldbyprovidingpracticalrec-ommendationsthatcanbeimplementedinbothstand-alonecoursesaswellasingeneralcurricu-lumredesign.Giventhemultitudeofrecentcrisesandthesubsequentcallsforbusinessschoolstoreconsidernotonlytheircoursecontentbutalsothecharacterofthestudentstheygraduate,wefeelthetimeisrighttoengageinadeeperconver-sationabouttheroleofcharacterdevelopmentastheresponsibilityofthebroaderbusinessschoolvillage.REFERENCESAllen,T.D.,Eby,L.T.,Poteet,M.L.,Lentz,E.,&Lima,L.2004.Careerbenefitsassociatedwithmentoringforprotégés:Ameta-analysis.JournalofAppliedPsychology,89:127–135.Alzola,M.2008.Characterandenvironment:Thestatusofvir-tuesinorganizations.JournalofBusinessEthics,78:343–357.Alzola,M.2012.Thepossibilityofvirtue.BusinessEthicsQuar-terly,22:377–404.Anscombe,E.1958.Modernmoralphilosophy.Philosophy,33:1–19.Aristotle.1999.Nicomacheanethics.T.Irwin,Trans.Indianapo-lis,IN:HacketPublishing.Arjoon,S.2000.Virtuetheoryasadynamictheoryofbusiness.JournalofBusinessEthics,28:159–178.AspenInstitute.2008.Wherewilltheylead?MBAstudentatti-tudesaboutbusinessandsociety.NewYork:TheAspenInstituteCenterforBusinessEducation.Audi,R.2012.Virtueethicsasaresourceinbusiness.BusinessEthicsQuarterly,22:273–291.Avolio,B.J.,&Gardner,W.L.2005.Authenticleadershipdevel-opment:Gettingtotherootofpositiveformsofleadership.LeadershipQuarterly,16:315–338.Bergman,J.Z.,Westerman,J.W.,&Daly,J.P.2010.Narcissisminmanagementeducation.AcademyofManagementLearn-ingandEducation,9:119–131.Blasi,A.1980.Bridgingmoralcognitionandmoralaction:Acriticalreviewoftheliterature.PsychologicalBulletin,88:1–45.Brower,H.2011.Sustainabledevelopmentthroughservicelearning:ApedagogicalframeworkandcaseexampleinaThirdWorldcontext.AcademyofManagementLearningandEducation,10:58–76.Collins,J.2001.Goodtogreat.NewYork:HarperCollins.Comer,D.R.,&Vega,G.2008.UsingthePETassessmentinstru-menttohelpstudentsidentifyfactorsthatcouldimpedemoralbehavior.JournalofBusinessEthics,77:129–145.Crossan,M.,Mazutis,D.,&Seijts,G.2013.Insearchofvirtue:Theroleofvirtues,valuesandcharacterstrengthsinethi-caldecisionmaking.JournalofBusinessEthics,113:567–581.Crossan,M.,Vera,D.,&Nanjad,L.2008.Transcendentleader-ship:Strategicleadershipindynamicenvironments.Lead-ershipQuarterly,19:569–581.deColle,S.,&Werhane,P.H.2008.Moralmotivationacrossethicaltheories:Whatcanwelearnfromdesigningcorpo-rateethicsprograms?JournalofBusinessEthics,81:751–764.Doris,J.M.2002.Lackofcharacter:Personalityandmoralbe-havior.Cambridge,U.K:CambridgeUniversityPress.Economist[Electronicversion].September24.24,2009.Thepedagogyoftheprivileged,Retrieved:September27,2009,from:http://www.economist.com/businessfinance/displaystory.cfm?story_id14493183.Evans,J.M.,Treviño,L.K.,&Weaver,G.R.2006.Who’sintheethicsdriver’sseat?FactorsinfluencingethicsintheMBAcurriculum.AcademyofManagementLearningandEduca-tion,5:278–293.Falkenberg,L.,&Woiceshyn,J.2008.Enhancingbusinessethics:Usingcasestoteachmoralreasoning.JournalofBusinessEthics,79:213–217.Ferraro,F.,Pfeffer,J.,&Sutton,R.I.2005.Economicslanguageandassumptions:Howtheoriescanbecomeself-fulfilling.AcademyofManagementReview,30:8–24.Flanagan,J.C.1954.Thecriticalincidenttechnique.Psycholog-icalBulletin,51:327–358.Gandz,J.,Crossan,M.,Seijts,G.,&Stephenson,C.2010.Lead-ershipontrial:Amanifestoforleadershipdevelopment.London,ON:IveyPublishing.Gardner,W.L.,Cogliser,C.C.,Davis,K.M.,&Dickens,M.P.2011.Authenticleadership:Areviewoftheliteratureandresearchagenda.LeadershipQuarterly,22:1120–1145.Gentile,M.C.2010.Givingvoicetovalues:Howtospeakyourmindwhenyouknowwhat’sright.NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress.George,B.2003.Authenticleadership:Rediscoveringthesecretstocreatinglastingvalue.SanFrancisco,CA:Jossey-Bass.Geva,A.2000.Moraldecisionmakinginbusiness:Aphase-model.BusinessEthicsQuarterly,10:773–803.Ghoshal,S.2005.Badmanagementtheoriesaredestroyinggoodmanagementpractices.AcademyofManagementLearningandEducation,4:75–91.Goleman,D.,Boyatzis,R.,&McKee,A.2002.Primalleadership:Learningtoleadwithemotionalintelligence.Boston,MA:HarvardBusinessSchoolPress.Hannah,S.T.,&Avolio,B.J.2010.Moralpotency:Buildingthecapacityforcharacter-basedleadership.ConsultingPsy-chologyJournal:PracticeandResearch,62:291–310.Harman,G.2003.Nocharacterorpersonality.BusinessEthicsQuarterly,13:87–94.Hartman,C.L.,&Beck-Dudley,C.L.1999.Marketingstrategiesandthesearchforvirtue:Acaseanalysisofthebodyshop,international.JournalofBusinessEthics,20:249–263.2013303Crossan,Mazutis,Seijts,andGandz
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CRITIQUE GUIDELINES
Some years back, I came across the Purposeful Reading Assignment that was reported to encourage students to read, reflect, and write about readings assigned for class. Research (Roberts and Roberts, 2008) and experience tell us that supporting students’ reading, writing, and reflective practices is one of the most challenging aspects of learning and teaching. Although this assignment appeared to be simple, it has proven to be an influential tool for learning and has increased engagement and participation among my students.
The basic assignment, also called the 3-2-1, has three requirements:
Requirement 3: Students read what is assigned, then choose and describe the three most important aspects (concepts, issues, factual information, etc.) or important takeaways of the reading, and justify their choices. Why did they stand out or have such meaning to you? You need to expand, with depth, on why these were so profound to warrant a takeaway.
Requirement 2: Students identify two aspects of the reading they don’t understand, they may disagree with or they need more clarification or expansion and briefly discuss why these confusing aspects interfered with their general understanding of the reading or presentation. Although students may identify more than two confusing elements, they must put them in priority order and limit themselves to the two most important ones. Students seldom understand everything in a reading and, knowing that they must complete this part of the assignment, will reflect on their level of understanding of all the reading’s content.
Requirement 1: Students pose a question to the text’s author, the answer to which should go beyond the reading content and does not reflect the areas of confusion in requirement 2. The question reflects students’ curiosity about the topic and reveals what they think are the implications or applications of the reading content.
These will be used for the all assigned critiques
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