Prior to beginning work on this discussion forum, read Chapters 1 and 3 of the course text. Review the Capstone Paper in Week 5 and select the issue in social and criminal justice that

1

An Overview of the Research Paper in Social and Criminal Justice

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe the qualities of a sound social and criminal justice research paper. • Explain the best processes for choosing a topic, selecting quality sources, and narrowing

down information. • Develop either an informal or formal outline for the purpose of organizing the material

into a concise and readable format. • Explain the importance of understanding the audience when writing a social and criminal

justice research paper. • Describe the basic formatting of APA style and why it is used in social and criminal

justice writing.

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CHAPTER 1Introduction

Why is writing a research paper important for students in a social and criminal jus- tice degree program? First and foremost, in every facet of the social and criminal

justice field, practitioners write, and they need to write well. Whether it is a police report, a pre-sentence investigation report, or an agency policy, most written work produced by a criminal justice practitioner will be read and reviewed by someone else. That someone else could be a judge, a parole board, or a supervisor or administrator. Being able to artic- ulate and convey pertinent information in the most concise manner is essential in crimi- nal justice. For example, warrants are not issued unless the police officer can concisely articulate probable cause. Many criminal cases have been lost in court because a written report or piece of written evidence was not coherent or did not convey the information as required by the court. In addition, when a case goes to trial, a poorly written report could result in an attack on the police officer’s credibility and knowledge of the case. Mastery of written English is an essential element of effective criminal justice.

Second, many criminal justice practitioners, at some point in their careers, have the oppor- tunity, or are required, to conduct research. It may involve analyzing and processing statistical data, or it may involve reviewing a policy or program to determine effective- ness and suggesting possible changes. As a detective, an officer may be asked to evaluate the rate of burglaries in a particular neighborhood and to develop a theory as to why they are occurring and/or who may be committing the crimes. A school resource officer may be asked to evaluate whether or not a particular after school program would be effec- tive to deter potential drug or gang activity. A patrol shift supervisor may be asked to determine, based on other agencies, whether the current shift policies provide the most effective means of law enforcement protection for the city. A correctional officer may be assigned to a committee whose task is to rewrite the policy and procedure manual for the correctional institution. There are many more examples throughout the criminal justice field, but all of these examples require the individual to possess some knowledge of con- ducting research and writing a report or paper, showing results of that research.

Beyond good skills in English writing, social/criminal justice students also need to com- prehend writing in American Psychological Association (APA) style and format. Writing in APA style means that the writing attempts to communicate objectivity and credibility, while providing an evidence-based approach. Qualities that make for good writing include proper standard English, appropriate grammatical structure, and giving appro- priate credit for ideas, concepts, and information borrowed from another author.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 What Are the Qualities of a Sound Social and Criminal Justice Research Paper?

1.1  What Are the Qualities of a Sound Social and Criminal Justice Research Paper?

The main purpose for writing a research paper is to advance knowledge in the particular sub-

ject area. However, an author cannot successfully advance knowledge unless others can compre- hend his or her work. In other words, if an indi- vidual were to have the best idea but was unable to communicate that idea to others, it would be difficult to convince anyone of its merits. Clear communication is an important goal when writ- ing in criminal justice.

In order to ensure that social and criminal justice research papers are clear and concise, there are some generally agreed-upon expectations for writing a research paper (Stellmack, Konheim-Kalkstein, Manor, Massey, & Schmitz, 2009):

• Literature review: How well was the exist- ing literature analyzed, and how well was this knowledge applied to the paper being written? The literature refers collectively to all of the available works on a given topic. Literature review is the term used to describe an overview of this literature, including description, summary, and eval- uation. Some will use the terms introduction and literature review interchangeably, but the introduction to a research paper typically includes a literature review as well as additional features (such as the thesis statement). This is addressed in more detail in the latter part of this chapter.

• Purpose of the study: Was the rationale for the present work adequately described, and do these ideas follow logically from previous research?

• Thesis statement: Was the thesis statement presented clearly? • Organization and flow: How well does the literature review build toward the the-

sis statement, and does it do so logically? • Sources: Were appropriate sources of evidence used to support claims, and were

those sources properly cited and credited within the paper? Were the sources used appropriately and ethically?

• APA formatting: Were the precise rules of APA formatting followed throughout the paper, including proper presentation of citations in the references section?

• Grammar and word choice: Were the basic conventions of grammar followed throughout the paper, including spelling, punctuation, use of abbreviations, and so on?

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Sound research and clear communication of ideas are the foundation for a successful criminal justice paper.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 The Process of Writing a Social and Criminal Justice Research Paper

1.2 The Process of Writing a Social and Criminal Justice Research Paper

As students progress through the undergraduate degree

program and reach this Cap- stone course, they undoubtedly become familiar with the for- matting expectations of research papers using the American Psy- chological Association (APA) for- mat (APA, 2010). APA style and format guidelines shape the final presentation of a research paper, but much planning, design, and work goes into that final product. A checklist of the steps to be com- pleted in writing a research paper include choosing a topic, writing a thesis statement, selecting and narrowing sources, and then writ- ing for the targeted audience (the instructor). Students should first

review the critical elements required in the assignment, which all focus on the concepts of social justice and criminal justice. An outline can then be created, which incorporates the critical elements into each of the steps of the research paper. Each of these steps is briefly reviewed here, with substantially more advice about each step in subsequent chapters.

Choosing a Topic For an assigned research paper, students may be given specific instructions in the prompt, such as to focus on a contemporary social or criminal justice issue. There are a few points to keep in mind when choosing a topic. First, students should remember to pick a topic they find interesting and would like to investigate, as it will be easier to spend weeks working with such a topic. Second, starting with a broader topic and narrowing the scope of the paper is generally easier than beginning with a topic that is too specific.

Third, once a topic idea has been selected, the student should conduct preliminary research. This is an extremely important step to ensure there are adequate current resources avail- able to complete the research paper. In other words, if the topic is too broad or too narrow, or if there is not enough information readily available for research, the student needs to quickly identify another topic. Finding out late in the term that the selected topic has not been previously well researched can cost valuable time and can result in an incomplete or poorly completed research paper. As such, the identification and selection of a research topic is an important decision that can affect the overall quality of the research paper. The process of generating research ideas is covered in more detail in Chapter 3.

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A checklist can be helpful for organizing the tasks that need to be completed for the research paper, such as choosing a topic and narrowing sources.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 The Process of Writing a Social and Criminal Justice Research Paper

Writing a Thesis Statement Once a topic has been chosen, the student needs to think about the appropriate thesis statement for the paper. As the name suggests, a thesis statement is a clear, concise state- ment that frames the argument that the researcher is hoping to prove during the course of conducting the research. A coherent and well-formed thesis statement will help guide the rest of the research-gathering process and will help determine what information is relevant to the writing assignment and what information is unnecessary.

However, the thesis statement should not be so broad that a concise topic cannot be identified—but also should not be so specific that it is impossible to investigate. See Table 1.1 for examples of research questions that are too broad and too narrow, with examples of a good balance between the two. The writer’s conclusions about the research question would then form the thesis statement.

Table 1.1: Research Question examples

Too broad Good balance Too narrow

Why do adolescents smoke? What is the impact of peer smoking on an adolescent’s decision to smoke or not?

If an adolescent’s parents are divorced (and one parent has remarried, and one parent has not), and if one of those par- ents smoke, will the adolescent begin smoking?

Why do conservatives favor the death penalty?

What is the relationship between favoring the death penalty and individual political beliefs?

If an individual registers to vote as a Republican, will the level of conservatism have an impact on whether or not the individual will vote to maintain the death penalty in his or her state?

Does community-oriented policing work?

What is the association between the community- oriented policing model and community satisfaction of local police officers?

If a community-oriented polic- ing model is in place, will more than 50% of the community’s citizens be willing to call the police when they see a crime occur?

Regardless of the topic, the student should be able to relate the topic to the research being conducted. For example, if the research paper topic is about the relationship between juvenile delinquency and drug use, then the student should be able to provide a compel- ling answer as to why delinquency and drug use are important and why writing a paper or doing research about the relationship between delinquency and drug use is also impor- tant. If the answer is “nobody cares anyway,” the student should try to find another way to frame the topic into a more concise thesis statement.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 The Process of Writing a Social and Criminal Justice Research Paper

In other words, the thesis statement should compel the reader to move past the first page of the paper. In order to do this, the thesis statement should not contain vague or confusing terms, or concepts or words that may be defined differently by different people. For exam- ple, the term “loitering” can mean different behaviors, depending on when and how the loitering is done. For one individual, loitering may include a group standing on a street cor- ner, whereas someone else may define it as the homeless person sleeping on a park bench.

Selecting Quality Sources: The Importance of Data and Information After selecting and narrowing the research topic and writing the thesis statement, the next phase in the completion of the research paper is to find sources of information and data. At this point, several questions come to mind: What types of sources are available? Which sources are acceptable for college-level research? And how does one find these sources?

In general, there is no shortage of information on any available topic. Between school, work, the Internet, and other mass media outlets, students can find out more about almost any conceivable topic with a few quick questions or keystrokes. Students should remem- ber that quality of the source matters (more on this later in the section). In addition, it is important to maintain focus on the thesis statement. There is a lot of material on any topic, and students can quickly become overwhelmed. The key is to know what material to look for and how to organize that material.

It is also important to differenti- ate between the terms data and information. Data refers to the raw facts and numbers derived from research. Information is data com- piled and interpreted to make it meaningful. The job of a researcher is to find credible information, thus ensuring credible data.

The content published in peer- reviewed journals, such as those available through databases like JSTOR or ProQuest, represents the work of numerous research- ers who have conducted primary research, gathered and analyzed data, and then presented a writ- ten report on the research. Data can be presented as quantitative (meaning it is based on num- bers) or qualitative (meaning it is based on words). Research using quantitative data may involve collecting surveys in which the numbers of individuals who behave in a certain way or identify with a certain characteristic or belief are counted and then categorized. For example, quantitative data could be an expression of the number of individuals who have been charged with a felony in the last 6 months, or it could be the numerical ratings on a scale that measures a person’s satisfaction with the local police department.

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Quantitative refers to data obtained using objective measures, while qualitative data may be collected based on subjective, observational research.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.2 The Process of Writing a Social and Criminal Justice Research Paper

Research using qualitative data is more subjective and allows the researcher to directly engage the subjects of the research through participation or observation of the research events. For example, engaging with gang members as they hang out on a street corner, or in a neighborhood, would provide the researcher with the opportunity to observe behav- iors, language, and communication in a natural environment. The data would then involve a written description of the activities and any perceptions or opinions of the researcher.

When gathering information for any research project, the importance of using credible, reputable sources is paramount. A reputable source is one that is highly regarded by other researchers and has a reputation for accuracy. It is a source in which the researcher con- cisely explains where he or she obtained the information that is presented in the work and has properly and accurately documented and cited the sources so they can be checked and verified by anyone who wishes to use them (Sole, 2010). The importance of identifying quality information sources is discussed more in Chapter 4. Therefore, students should keep in mind that not all sources are created equal. For example, Wikipedia, Wisegeek, encyclopedias, and dictionaries are not scholarly or acceptable sources. In addition, not everything on the Internet is worthy of consideration (in fact, much of it is not!).

Narrowing the Information Consider writing a paper on the topic of “sex offenders.” A simple Google search comes back with about 33 million results (in 0.13 seconds). A Google Scholar search returns about 254,000 results (in 0.16 seconds). Reviewing 254,000 references is obviously not pos-

sible when time to complete the research is a major factor. In addi- tion, the same outcomes might occur with a search of the JSTOR or ProQuest databases. So, how does one choose which informa- tion to review for inclusion and which information to avoid?

The first step is to narrow the focus of the topic, accomplished by developing a well-thought-out thesis statement. “Sex offenders” is too broad a term for a research paper, and does not make a spe- cific argument. Also, does this refer to adult or child offenders, and would it include victims, identification of sex offenders, rehabilitation issues, sex offender

registration and legislation, or something else? If the focus has already been narrowed appropriately and there are still an overwhelming number of resources, what is the best way to determine which to include in the research paper? Answering this question is complicated, but it does get easier with time and with practice. The second step is to think about the audience. For whom is the paper being written, and which sources and informa- tion are most appropriate for this reader?

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Narrowing one’s topic makes for more efficient research and a more focused paper.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 Creating an Outline

Generally speaking, it is better to present too many references—provided they are all rel- evant and credible, and they support the topics presented in the paper—rather than too few. What if many references support the same idea? Which ones should be cited? If there are classic references in the literature (that is, previous publications that are cited with high frequency in subsequent research), citing those sources signals to the reader that the author has conducted a valid and thorough research process. Just because it is old doesn’t mean it is lacking in information. Further, citing the most recent reference will add additional credibil- ity to the research paper—a comprehensive knowledge of both the old and new resources in a particular area is a scholarly trait instructors generally want students to acquire.

However, students should avoid providing a long list of nonspecific references. Sometimes students (and experienced researchers) want either to (a) show off their scholarly work by referencing every study they reviewed, whether it is relevant or not, or (b) conserve space by citing multiple studies at the end of a sentence or paragraph. There is no magic number of studies that should be cited in a research paper, particularly if the goal is to provide a thorough overview of the topic being studied, and that could include any number of studies. A good rule of thumb is, if the results of previous studies are inconsistent or vary widely on the topic, then cite them separately. Prior inconsistencies in the literature help to justify the value of the current research paper.

1.3 Creating an Outline

Few students are able to write a perfect paper on the first

attempt. Good writing is a lot of work, and for a research paper, much of that work is invested prior to actually writing a single word. By exploring retrieved material from databases such as JSTOR and ProQuest, researchers extract key information they can use to support their thesis state- ments. But the evidence gathered to support a thesis statement is often more persuasive and under- standable if presented in an orga- nized way, such as in an outline (Warriner & Griffith, 1973). A clear and concise outline allows the researcher to assemble vari- ous types of information, as well as a myriad of arguments in support of the thesis statement. Without outlining and orga- nization, the student runs the risk of not achieving clear communication, which could limit the reader’s ability to clearly comprehend the material.

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Starting with a thorough outline allows one to convey ideas and arguments clearly and succinctly in the paper.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.3 Creating an Outline

Writing in Action: Sample Research Questions with Informal and Formal Outlines

INFORMAL

Research Question: Does the involvement in a juvenile gang lead to illegal drug use?

Thesis Statement: Involvement in a juvenile gang is likely to lead to illegal drug use.

• Juvenile gangs are present in many communities throughout the country. • Juvenile gangs are engaged in numerous illegal behaviors, including the manufacturing, sale,

and use of illegal drugs. • Belonging to a juvenile gang provides tremendous peer pressure, particularly to younger

members. • Juveniles who want to gain membership and maintain membership in a gang will engage in all

gang-related behaviors, including illegal drug use. • The involvement in a juvenile gang does lead to illegal drug use by its members.

FORMAL

Research Question: Does the involvement in a juvenile gang lead to illegal drug use?

Thesis Statement: Involvement in a juvenile gang is likely to lead to illegal drug use.

I. Introduction: Many communities are experiencing juvenile gang behaviors and crime. Thesis: Involvement in a juvenile gang is likely to lead to illegal drug use.

II. Juvenile gangs are engaged in numerous illegal activities. A. Gang members are involved in personal as well as property crimes. B. Gang members are involved in the manufacturing, sale, and use of illegal drugs.

III. Gang membership involves peer pressure. A. Many juveniles join gangs because of peer pressure. B. Juveniles who are raised in dysfunctional families may find support from gang members. C. Younger members of the gang are the most prone to and most affected by peer pressure

from older gang members.

IV. To gain and maintain membership in a juvenile gang, juveniles will go along with the group. A. Juveniles are willing to engage in illegal activities for the good of the gang. B. Juveniles who are not willing to go along with the group face severe consequences.

V. Conclusion: Juveniles who join gangs are willing to do whatever it takes to maintain their membership and will engage in more illegal drug use than juveniles not involved in gangs.

After a thesis statement is formulated, students can sketch out either an informal or a formal outline (Hacker, 2009). In an informal outline, the thesis statement is presented at the top of the page, followed by a series of bulleted points that serve as the key points to be presented in the research paper to support the thesis. These could also form major subheadings of a literature review. In contrast, a formal outline contains Roman numerals and specific rules, such as, if there is an A, then there must be a B; a 1 must also have a 2; and so on. An outline is a valuable tool that can help students follow the layout of the material from beginning to end. In addition, the same outline can provide a more concise presentation for the reader of the paper. See Writing in Action: Sample Research Questions with Informal and Formal Outlines.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.4 Writing for an Audience

1.4 Writing for an Audience

Writing for an audience means that the student should consider and identify who will be the reader of the finished research paper. Since the reader of the finished product

will be the course instructor, students should consider the specific directions that have been provided by the instructor, and be sure to follow the APA formatting requirements of the course.

In addition to knowing and understanding the specific instructor’s preferences, students should also consider the content knowledge and background of instructor, and thus, of the reader of the research paper. Psychologist Robert Sternberg (2005) offered four sugges- tions for formatting the research paper with the reader in mind. First, students should be sure to use vocabulary appropriate for the reader. For example, an academic paper should reflect a professional vocabulary, but good writing does not use jargon-heavy phrasing unless it is warranted. Any terms that may be new to the reader should be defined and explained on first use. The goal is for the reader to understand the discussion without frequent use of a dictionary.

Second, students should maintain an appropriate level of formal- ity in writing a research paper. For example, writing a post on a discussion board is much dif- ferent than thoughtfully putting together a research paper. Aca- demic writing should be some- what formal because it needs to be objective. However, it is possi- ble to slip into conversation mode when writing. For example, using informal personal pronouns, as in the sentence, “I will now tell you about the three strikes leg- islation,” or relating the mate- rial through personal anecdotes, is not appropriate in a research paper. Although a good writer

wants the reader to be engaged with the topic, professional writing is not a conversation between writer and reader. A formality of expression is expected in a proper research paper, and part of that comes from maintaining an appropriate distance from the subject matter. Although APA style indicates that writing in the first person is preferred, for the Capstone research paper, students should write solely in the third person.

At what point in writing a research paper does the student insert his or her own opinions or share his or her personal experiences? Opinions and anecdotal events are generally not appropriate in this case, but the voice of the student does come through in the way the paper is organized and in how the thesis statement is supported by logical arguments and current evidence. Even though the student is not speaking to the reader in the first person (i.e., “It is my opinion that . . .”), the student’s opinions are made clear through the analy- sis of the information and the sources and conclusions made about the material.

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Students should consider their audience when writing a paper, as it will influence the content as well as style of the writing.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.5 Using APA Format

Third, students should include only those details that are relevant to the reader. Criminal justice students will not need to define terms such as crime and offender, as the instructor will already know what these words mean. However, if the thesis statement and informa- tion presented covers a specific topic that may not be general to the criminal justice sys- tem, terms and concepts may need to be defined or at least clarified to ensure the reader can easily comprehend the information.

Finally, students should avoid the use of abbreviations. Abbreviations can be somewhat distracting, particularly if it is an unusual or not a well-known abbreviation. For example, most criminal justice students and instructors would readily recognize the abbreviation CJS as representing the criminal justice system. However, many may not recognize FLETC as the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center. Although the student may present the entire and proper name the first time it is introduced in the paper, subsequent uses of the abbreviation, particularly if not mentioned again for several pages, may be confusing and may cause the reader to stop and have to go back to the initial introduction for clarity.

If abbreviations are unavoidable, students should use them sparingly. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2010) suggests that to be worth the effort, the item being abbreviated should be used at least three times after its introduction (and when introducing the item, always spelled out the first time unless the abbreviation is accepted as a word). The key question is this: Is the space saved by the abbreviation worth the effort the reader must make to remember and understand the abb

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