A history of multicultural America. Part One: Foundations. (Takaki, 1993, pp. 3-73). As such, you will write a four-page double spaced paper (Times New Roman, 12pt font) explaining
education & teaching writing question
Prompt: The first graded assignment is to read A different mirror: A history of multicultural America. Part One: Foundations. (Takaki, 1993, pp. 3-73). As such, you will write a four-page double spaced paper (Times New Roman, 12pt font) explaining to your reading audience the authors main argument and all supporting contentions. You will identify strengths and weaknesses of the argument and explain why you agree or disagree. To refute the author’s claims you need supporting evidence from peer reviewed article and/or books. Remember to cite in APA style writing throughout your paper and create a References section at the end (not a Works Cited). Purdue Owl or Google is your best friend for creating an acceptable document in APA format. Another great idea is to find a scholarly social science peer reviewed article or paper and pattern your work after that. Using the format is not plagiarism. Using someone elses work and not citing is plagiarism. The book (A Different Mirror) is an easy read and to the point. .
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Students will learn to conduct a literature review and produce a scholarly paper (citing) in APA style format. As such, students will learn to cite properly in the body of their work and create a correct Reference section. Students will also learn about societies and their interactions through Takaki (1993) lens. This mean chapters will be assigned for reading and response usually bimonthly using the instructor prompt as a guideline.
INSTRUCTIONS
Read the assignment. Be aware of anything that appears to be unclear, unanswered, or ambiguous. Content that is not clear and specific based on evidence may lead to a research question. Identify the author’s main argument. Look for strengths and weakness in the author’s argument. Do some research…look in the library data base, i..e. Jstor (means journal storage), and enter key words from the reading in the Jstor search engine. Pick an article that appears to be on point and use their arguments to either refute or support Takaki’s argument. All supporting evidence should be peer reviewed and published through a credible source. In your own words tell you reading audience the author’s main argument and remember to cite. Submit your work in the assignments section of this program on or before the due date.
please take this essay pretty seriously and DO NOT copy anyone work. There is a sample of how to do this assignment.
Requirements: you will write a four-page double spaced paper | .doc file
Sample paper
Upon returning to the book African Perspectives on Colonialism? written by A. Adu Boahen (1987) provides his final arguments which hold a great significance during the time that colonialism in Africa took place. His main argument within the third chapter of the reading describes the prerequisites that were set up by colonies as well as the Africans reactions to the nature of the colonial system itself and the initiatives that were taken to defend themselves (Boahen, 1987, p. 59). Within the designated pages of the third chapter, we are given a look at the operations of the colonial system, as well as the strategies that were employed by Africans to overthrow the system.
Continuing where we left off, we begin by examining the prerequisites that needed to be satisfied, to support the need for raw materials and markets for the sale of manufactured goods (Boahen, 1987). A set of prerequisites such as primary means of production being met, health structures, infrastructure, and the education of Africans that were necessary for employing them needed to be satisfied but were met by establishing administrations that did this by means of exploiting Africa and Africans. Boahen (1987) states all the colonial imperial powers first and foremost set up systems of administrations, either for each individual colony, as the British and the Germans did, or for a group of colonies, as the French did? (p. 59). Each colony during the time was placed under a governor and was divided into regions under local and regional administration. With each colony separated, Boahen notes that during this time some imperial powers made use of existing traditional rulers while others abolished the ruling dynasties and appointed educated Africans (Boahen, 1987, p. 59).
The main purpose of the colonial system was the ruthless exploitation of the human and material resources in Africa. This purpose created an advantage for the owners and shareholders of the expatriate companies and the governments as well as the industrial firms (Boahen, 1987, p. 62). All the colonial administrators ensured that land was made available to Europeans, mainly through confiscation and the expulsion and resettlement of the indigenous peoples? (Boahen, 1987, p. 60). Some colonies forced Africans to grow cash crops, but in all colonies, Africans were shoved out of the import-export business because of expatriate firms and companies being given free rein to import the manufactured goods being produced and to control pricing of imports and exports (Boahen, 1987, pp. 61-62). Upon all these changes made by the colonies, the nature of the colonial system caused different reactions among Africans.
In the reading, Boahen (1984) notes that the illiterate and traditional rulers from the rural areas had different reactions to the actions of the colonial system than those of the urban populations and the educated elite (p. 62). Many European historians are of the opinion that all classes and groups of Africans with the sole exception of the educated elite readily accepted colonial rule? (Boahen, 1984, p. 62). Although there were mixed reactions at first, Africans became conscious of the oppression that the colonial system had brought. This awareness was not confined to the educated elite, but rather to all groups of Africans such as the educated elite, illiterate farmers, and traders, as well as civil servants and urban dwellers.
To overthrow the colonial system, rural areas used a strategy of rebellion and insurrection (Boahen, 1984, pp. 63-65). Many of these insurrections took place during the 1880s through the beginning of the 1900s. Boahen (1984) notes that these insurrections and rebellions that took place were brutally suppressed and led to the deaths of thousands of Africans (p. 66). Along with rebellions, rural folk as well as their leaders had other strategies to fight against colonial domination and exploitation. The other strategies of the rural and illiterate Africans were migration, refusal to work, attacking symbols of colonial oppression, and rejection of the colonial schools, languages, and churches (Boahen, 1984, pp.66-68). On the other hand, the educated elite and the urban workers had a different approach in fighting against the oppression of the colonial system.
Educated elite and urban workers aim was to reform the colonial system, with the main objectives of correcting certain abuses, providing facilities in the areas of education and economics, as well as sufficient representation on the executive and legislative councils (Boahen, 1987). To attain these goals, they utilized literary media, petitions, and sometimes strikes or boycotts. During this time, Boahen (1984) notes that one instrument that was important for the expression of demand of the educated elite was the press (pp. 68-69). With massive numbers of newspapers being founded, they served a purpose which was to launch full attacks aimed towards the colonial system.
In addition to utilizing the press, societies and political parties were formed to lead the campaign against the system. Societies that were created at the time, served as a watchdog and a mouthpiece of the interests of the people as well as a critic of the system itself (Boahen, 1984, p. 70). The last instrument that the educated elite and urban workers used were strikes and boycotts. These were usually the acts of urban workers to obtain higher wages, get reduced prices of imported goods, or to protest the ill treatment that workers experienced (Boahen, 1984, pp. 72-73). With all sorts of strategies being used to overthrow or reform the colonial system, there were some successes.
However, these successes were limited and did not make a change to the colonial system. Although there was little change to the colonial system, African initiatives and reactions towards the oppression continued (Boahen, 1984, p. 75). Within his writing, Boahen (1984) notes that with a few exceptions, there was a difference between the reactions of the Africans in the first two periods. A notable difference between the first and second periods was the introduction of trade unions during the latter. By the period from 1935 to the 1960s, efforts to reform the colonial system grew even in intensity and sophisticated due to the events of the world wars and economic factors.?
Towards the end of the chapter, we are given a look at the events which led to the fall of the colonial system 45 years after the Italian occupation on Ethiopia. Boahen (1984) notes that the five main factors that contributed were the Italian occupation on Ethiopia, the impact of the second world war, the Pan-Africanist congress, the formation. Of new political parties, and the emergence of African leaders who demanded the abolition of the colonial system (p. 91).
Shifting our focus from chapter three, we now move onto chapter four. In chapter four, Boahen provides his final argument within his book. His main argument within the final chapter of the reading describes the efforts that colonial rulers could have done for Africa, rather than wasting an opportunity (Boahen, 1984, p. 109). Within these designated pages of this final chapter, we are given a look at the opinions of many historians on the colonial impact in Africa, as well as Boahens own perspective and reasoning on this topic.
At the start of the chapter, we learn that after forty-five years since the Italian occupation, all African states except for a few had been liberated and were able to regain their sovereignty and independence (Boahen, 1984, p. 94). Boahen (1984) notes that the question regarding the nature of the impact of colonialism have become more controversial (p. 94).
Historians have varying opinions on the colonial impacts. Some believe that the impact was both positive and negative while others believe that there was no impact at all. Though there are many different explanations, the main argument is that colonialism did so little for the economy of Africa, but instead grew more to the advantage of the colonial powers itself. Because of their failure in helping more, Boahen (1984) notes that it is for this failure that the colonial era will go down in history as a period of wasted opportunities, of ruthless exploitation of the resources of Africa, and on balance of the underdevelopment and humiliation of the peoples of Africa? (p. 109).
Throughout the chapter, Boahen (1987) names the beneficial as well as the harmful consequences of the impacts that colonialism had on Africa in the economic, political, and social fields in what he refers to as the colonial balance sheet. He starts first by addressing the effects colonialism had on the political field, beginning with the era of continuous peace, order, and stability which set in after the violence and instability that ensued during the first three decades of the colonial era had passed. Boahen (1984) notes that this era facilitated and accelerated the economic and social changes that occurred in Africa during the period of colonialism (p. 95).
The next positive political impact that he claims is the independent states of Africa coming into view. Although This positive impact helped establish forty-eight new states, there were also problems. These problems stemmed from boundaries being drawn randomly. One of which is the problem of nation-state building. Because of the artificiality behind the boundaries, each independent states boundaries have been drawn around regions hosting several ethnocultural groups with their own distinct languages and cultures (Boahen, 1984, p. 96).
Another problem that came from these boundaries was the interstate boundary disputes. Although these boundaries created multiethnic states, they continued to run across preexisting nations, states, kingdoms, ethnicities, and empires (Boahen, 1984, p. 96).
The third problem was the obstruction caused by unequal access to resources.?Some states were more gigantic than others, with some having miles of coastline whole others were landlocked, with no sea access. This ultimately created problems of security and smuggling, leaving many states struggling without patrol. Shifting from our third problem, we now look at the third positive social impact. The third positive political impact of colonialism that Boahen lists is the introduction of a new bureaucracy of civil servants and judicial system which he notes have remained intact in the African states.?The generation of a sense of nationalism as well as the intensification of the spirit of Pan-Africanism is the next positive impact he evaluates.
Boahen (1984) notes that the colonial system generated a sense of identity among different ethnic groups in each state and the anticolonial literary activities strengthened the Pan-Africanism spirit (p. 98). While the colonial powers never deliberately wanted to generate consciousness, it emerged accidentally. The nationalism that was anything but positive. It rose out of anger, frustration, and humiliation that was produced by the oppression of the colonial administrations and it ultimately?left behind the problem of creating a more positive force of nationalism in the nonexistence of colonialisms exploitative and degrading presence (Boahen, 1984, pp. 98-99).
The last political impact Boahen focuses on is the delay in political development and maturation of African states. If colonialism meant anything at all politically, it was the loss of sovereignty and independence by the colonized peoples? (Boahen, 1984, p. 99). Boahen (1984) notes that the loss of sovereignty, implied the loss of the right for a state to control its own destiny. Plan its development, decide which nations to associate with, conducts its own diplomacy and relations, and manage its ow affairs (p. 99). In the reading, it notes that the seventy-year colonial era was one of the most dynamic and scientific periods in history. It was an era filled with many advancements, but colonialism isolated Africa from all these changes, which caused underdevelopment and technological backwardness.
In addition to impact of colonialism in the political field, there was also some in the economic field. In the reading, we first look at the positive economic impacts. Boahen (1984) notes that the most important economic benefit was the allocation of road infrastructures, railroads, harbors, and the telephone (p. 100). Another economic impact was the development of Africas primary sector of their economy. This period contained the discovery of modern scientific mining and mineral potential. Also, it brought upon the production of cash crops which became the main staple of the economy of many African states. ?These economic changes brought upon consequences which allowed land in Africa to raise in value. Africans were also enabled to acquire wealth, and the African economy became integrated into the world economy.
However, these economic developments of colonialism still had their negative side. Of these negative effects, Boahen (1984) starts with the fact that the infrastructure provided was inadequate and very unevenly distributed which resulted in uneven economic development (p. 100-101). ?First off, the transportation and communications infrastructure were inadequate and unevenly distributed. This proved to be a major obstacle in the way of nation-building. A second downside was the delay of industrial and technological developments which was brought upon by the colonial system. Before colonial rule, African were producing their own materials, but after colonialism there was a neglect of industrialization in Africa, which explains the technological backwardness (Boahen, 1984, p. 101).
Aside from the industrial and technological developments, the monocrop economies were also affected. During the colonial period, each colony produced a single cash crop with no attempts to diversify the agricultural economy. Boahen (1984) also notes that since Africans were pushed to produce what they did not consume and rather consume what they did not produce, they were left relying on importation of basic dietary staples (p.102). With monocrop economies being affected and leaving Africans to rely on importation, it also began to affect inter-African trade, which had already been completed on the African continent during the eve of the scramble which was talked about in chapter two.
Colonialism, as Boahen says, put an end to inter-African trade. This stunted the spread of language and culture and led regions to depend on metropolitan places for trade. What could have been beneficial for the whole continent, was ultimately halted (Boahen, 1984, p. 102). Due to the new artificial boundaries, the people became divided, and it blocked the transregional and regional caravan routes that were used for centuries. From there, trading between members of the same ethnic groups on either side of the border suddenly became smuggling, which was heavily punished at the time (Boahen, 1984, p. 102).
Boahen (1984) notes that the flow of trade had oriented towards the metropolitan country, which has sadly not ended after twenty years of independence (p. 102). In the last final pages of the chapter, Boahen identifies some of the social benefits of colonial impact. The first social impact describes population growth. Although there was a decline, the population started to increase after the First World War (Boahen, 1984, p. 103). In the reading, Boahen (1984) states, Caldwell has estimated that the population of Africa increased by thirty-seven percent during the colonial period? (p. 103). Not only did the population grow, but there were also urbanization advancements. Preexisting towns began to expand, and new urban centers emerged. Following the establishment of the colonial system, the new cities served as ports, mining centers, administrative centers, and railway centers (Boahen, 1984, pp. 103-104).
In addition to urbanization efforts, there was also a spread of Christianity, Islam, and Western education during the colonial period. Christianity started to gain more converts and even started to spread outward towards East and Central Africa. On the other hand, Islam began to gain ground from the patronage of colonial administrators while the traditional African religion continued to maintain its position despite the spread of foreign religions during that time (Boahen, 1984, p. 104).
Meanwhile, Western education also spread due to the activities of Christian missionaries. In the 1930s there were very few places where elementary education not taught, while few secondary schools and universities started appearing by the 1940s. Boahen (1984) notes that the spread of Western education was responsible for producing the educated elite, which led the overthrow of the colonial system and constitutes the backbone of the civil service of independent African states (p. 104). Another benefit that resulted from the spread of Western education, which ultimately allowed the mother tongue of metropolitan country, to become the official language in most colonies. Ultimately, although the colonial system contributions towards the social field was considerable, it was mostly negative. It brought upon negative impacts in the social services, the demand for education, the status of women, and colonial mentality.
Summary
Overall, Boahens writing further justifies his main arguments within the third and fourth chapter, regarding the prerequisites that were set up by colonies as well as the Africans reactions to the nature of the colonial system itself, as well as the efforts that colonial rulers could have done for Africa and the impacts brought upon by colonialism. Reflecting on these two chapters that weve discussed in the beginning, Boahen supports his arguments with many valid key points and details.
While there are a variety of opinions on colonialism, the colonial period was extremely important, despite being a short period. With many different reactions towards the nature of the colonial system, there were strategies and objectives that were put into place to combat the oppression during that era. From 1935 to the 1960s, efforts of reform began to intensify due to the the world wars and economic factors. While also diving into the impacts of the colonial system on Africa, we get a better sense on the overall situation during the colonial period. After comparing the positive and negative impacts on the economic, political, and social fields. Ultimately, colonialism stunted Africas growth in many aspects. In other words, colonial rulers could have done so much more for Africa. Because of their lack of initiatives, their failure will forever be engraved in history. Given the opportunities, resources, and power, they had the ability to do more. This is a constant point that Boahen makes throughout the duration of the final chapter, which was heavily supported and a strong argument. I think that both points that he presented within the assigned pages, were both strong and fundamentally assisted one another in creating a strong finish. Overall, Boahens work raised questions regarding the significance of colonialism, and allows us to reflect on what weve been taught in our history books as kids. In conclusion, Boahen continues to make a compelling argument through key points and examples that pertain to the perspectives on colonialism and the initiatives that were taken.
References
Boahen, A. A. (1989).?African Perspectives on Colonialism. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
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