Consider the attached journal articles on trauma and education. Based on the articles below reflect on trauma in education, and think about how these educational practices and strategies re

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Preparing Trauma-Sensitive Teachers: Strategies for Teacher Educators

Connie Honsinger, Ph.D Chesterfield County Public Schools

Mavis Hendricks Brown, Ph.D. University of Richmond

Abstract

Many children who attend school have or will experience some type of trauma that may impact cognition, behavior, and relationships (Van Der Kolk, 2014). The result of these adverse experiences is often diminished concentration, memory, organization, and language skills that can exacerbate maladjustment in the school setting (Ogata, 2017). According to the National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN) (2016), difficulties displayed by children impacted by trauma can also include poor social skills, increased aggression, an inability to trust, dysregulation, fearfulness, anxiety, and avoidant behaviors. Despite how common exposure to trauma is and the significant impact it can have on students and the classroom, few teachers are prepared to recognize and respond appropriately. This paper will provide information and resources that can assist teacher educators to better prepare future teachers to address these concerns and build resilience in all students particularly those impacted by trauma.

Keywords: Trauma, Classroom, Strategies

“When little people are overwhelmed by big emotions, it is our job to share our calm, not join their chaos.” L. R. Knost "There is no more effective neurobiological intervention than a safe relationship." “Relationships are the agents of change and the most powerful therapy is love.” — Bruce Perry, PhD, MD, researcher & child psychiatrist

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Trauma has no boundaries with regard to age, gender, socioeconomic status, race,

ethnicity, geography, or sexual orientation and it is often a common experience of individuals

who struggle with mental health disorders. Students who have experiences of trauma exist in

every school and community. There is a strong correlation between students who have

experienced trauma and poor school performance (Goodman, Miller, & Olatunji, 2011). Given

these concerns, it has become critically important to help prepare teachers with the skills and

strategies necessary to successfully work with students who have been impacted by trauma.

Virginia has taken the lead in focusing on issues that impact children with the

establishment of the Children’s Cabinet by Governor Ralph Northam in June of 2018. The

executive order identified a number of priorities; (a) Early childhood development and school

readiness, (b) Nutrition and food security, and (c) Systems of care and safety for school-aged

youth. One of the goals of the governor’s policy council on PreK-12 education in Virginia was to

identify significant issues and make recommendations on how to improve public education.

Equity and opportunity for every student was described as a high priority and within this

category the council acknowledged the importance of promoting alternatives to punitive school

discipline. Recommendations further supported the implementation of positive behavioral

supports, restorative practices, and making Virginia a national leader in using trauma-informed

instruction in all of its public schools to support student success.

In addition, the governor created the Trauma-Informed Care for Children Work Group

that was charged with developing recommendations to enhance student safety and to support a

consistent, evidence-based, and culturally-competent statewide response to childhood trauma.

Although the groups are in the preliminary stages of work, one recommendation that has come

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forward is for child and family-serving agencies to adopt the Substance Abuse and Mental

Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) definition and framework of trauma-informed care.

The Virginia Department of Education has also reflected this emphasis on trauma

education within teacher licensure and recertification requirements, approved August of 2018.

According to the State Board of Education, Licensure Regulations for School Personnel (Article

2.1) Human Development and Learning, skills in this area shall contribute to an understanding of

the physical, social, emotional, speech and language, and intellectual development of children

and the ability to use this understanding in guiding learning experiences and relating

meaningfully to students. Highlighted within this article is an understanding of trauma, including

child abuse and neglect and other adverse childhood experiences and family disruptions (VDOE,

2018). According to Tara McDaniel, director of teacher education in Virginia, there are no plans

at the moment to include any specific professional development regarding adverse childhood

experiences and understanding trauma, as that is currently left up to the individual locality (T.

McDaniel, personal communication, January 23, 2019).

Developing a Trauma-Informed Approach

Given the absence of direction on the specific content related to trauma, what should

teacher educators include in their teacher preparation programs? Currently the child abuse and

neglect recognition and intervention training curriculum guide on the Virginia Department of

Education website (Attachment A, Superintendent Memo #209) provides some information

regarding child abuse recognition and reporting, promoting resiliency, and resources. In

addition, information from The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

(SAMHSA, 2014) can assist teacher educators with resources on trauma-informed care and

trauma-sensitive practices. Both are excellent resources however, what are the most important

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concepts teachers should know prior to walking into the classroom? How can teacher educators

help future teachers develop a trauma-sensitive lens, what skills are needed, and what does this

look like in practice?

Institutions as well as many school districts and organizations have looked to local

expertise for direction in providing education in becoming trauma-informed. The Greater

Richmond Trauma Informed Community Network (TICN) is a diverse group of individuals,

convened by Greater Richmond SCAN (Stop Child Abuse Now), who share a commitment

towards the creation of a more trauma informed and resilient community within the Greater

Richmond region. This network includes a number of committee’s to address this mission

including a training committee that has developed a common language and understanding around

our community on the impact of adverse childhood experiences and strategies to build individual

and community resilience.

Members of the training committee provide community workshops free of charge as well

as presentations to specific organizations upon request using research-based information and best

practices. The TICN Outcomes Committee has worked to develop an evaluation plan to measure

the collective impact and value of the TICN in the community. Knowledge is assessed using a

variety of methods including pre and post-tests, evaluations, qualitative feedback, and

assessments to identify changes in how individuals, organizations, and/ or systems function and

interact as a result (Greater Richmond SCAN, n.d.).

The Virginia Department of Behavioral Health, responsible for promoting behavioral

health wellness, has also launched their Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Initiative with its

Master Trainer series in partnership with Dr. Robert Anda, one of the original researchers of the

ACE study. Two cohorts of trainers have participated in this two-day in depth training with the

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charge to conduct a minimum of three additional trainings in their own communities across the

state. This training is provided free of charge and trainers are listed on the prevention works

website (Virginia Prevention Works, 2019).

According to SAMHSA (2014), a trauma-informed approach includes four Rs; (1)

Realize the widespread impact of trauma and understand potential paths for recovery, (2)

Recognize the signs and symptoms of trauma in clients/ students, families, staff, and others

involved with the system, (3) Respond by fully integrating knowledge about trauma into policies,

procedures, and practices, and (4) Resist re-traumatization. Using this framework, teacher

educators can address student needs and promote learning that will prepare them to work with K-

12 students who have been impacted by trauma. Key concepts, skills, and strategies within this

framework will be addressed in this article.

Realize: The Impact of Trauma

The first step to becoming trauma-informed is the realization that trauma is pervasive in

the lives of children. It is not isolated to students with emotional and behavioral disabilities or

select schools or communities but exists everywhere. According to the U. S. Department of

Health and Human Services (DHHS) (2013), an estimated 679,000 children were victimized by

maltreatment that included neglect, physical, sexual, and psychological abuse. Nearly a half

million children who experience physical and sexual abuse and neglect are placed into foster care

each year (Dwyer & Noonan, 2005). An estimated one in five Americans was sexually molested

as a child, one in four was beaten by a parent, and one in eight children witnessed their mother

being physically assaulted (VanDerKolk, 2014). Nearly 11 million children under the age of 18

grow up in households with alcoholic relatives; 10 million have experienced the incarceration of

a parent and live below the poverty level in unsafe communities (Paccione-Dyszlewski, 2016).

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There is little question, that for many students, adverse childhood experiences or ACEs

are common and often highly interrelated; where one ACE occurs, there are usually others (ACE

Interface, 2015). There is a significant dose-response relationship that indicates the more adverse

experiences; the more likely an individual is to experience mental, physical, behavioral health,

and social problems (Felitti et al., 1998). Adverse experiences are also more likely to be

transmitted from one generation to the next repeating toxic levels of stress and unhealthy coping

patterns.

Teacher educators will want to keep in mind that some future educators they work with

have their own histories of trauma (Carello & Butler, 2015). Statistics regarding undergraduate

college students indicate as high as 66-94% report exposure to one or more traumatic events

(Frazier et al., 2009). The introduction of information regarding adverse childhood experiences

can trigger individual responses that pre-service teachers may not be prepared for. As a result,

teacher educators need to be mindful of potential reactions and be prepared to provide

appropriate support and resources that may range from warning students of such a reaction prior

to the introduction of the material to the provision of resources for those who may want to seek

additional supports provided by the institution such as counseling.

Recognize: The Signs and Symptoms of Trauma

SAMHSA defines trauma as an event, series of events, or set of circumstances that is

experienced by an individual as physically or emotionally harmful or life threatening and that has

lasting adverse effects on the individual’s functioning and mental, physical, social, emotional, or

spiritual well-being. In addition, the adverse events often involve intense fear and helplessness

and fall outside of one’s ability to cope (Perry, 2017). Examples of trauma include, but are not

limited to: experiencing or observing physical, sexual, and emotional abuse; childhood neglect;

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having a family member with a mental health or substance use disorder; experiencing or

witnessing violence in the community or while serving in the military, poverty, and systemic

discrimination (NCTSN, 2016).

A significant number of youth have previously or will experience some type of trauma

prior to the age of 18 that may impact their ability to regulate their emotions, develop healthy

relationships, and achieve academic success in the school environment (Van Der Kolk, 2014).

Neurobiological studies have identified physiological changes to children’s brains due to

exposure to trauma potentially resulting in emotional and behavioral responses that can interfere

with learning (Center on the Developing Child, 2007). Children impacted by trauma may

experience diminished concentration, difficulty with memory and organization, increased

aggression and negative peer interactions, dysregulation, avoidant behaviors, and distrust of

teachers which can exacerbate challenges in the school setting (NCTSN, 2016; Ogata, 2017).

So how does a teacher know if a student has been affected by trauma? The answer is,

despite some academic, behavioral or social indicators, they may never know. We need to

presume the K-12 students we serve have a history of traumatic stress and exercise “universal

precautions” by creating systems of care that are trauma-informed (Hodas, 2005). Universal

design theories share some common principles with trauma-informed care such as using a

strengths-based, person centered, and solution-focused approach (Carello & Butler, 2015).

Respond: Using a Trauma-Sensitive Lens

Teachers working with children and adolescents in the school environment spend a

significant amount of time addressing difficult behaviors and assisting students with poor

academic achievement (Keller-Dupree, 2013; Perry, 2009). Educators who learn about the

impacts of trauma can have a greater understanding of some of the underlying reasons for

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children’s inappropriate behavior in the classroom rather than misreading it as intentional

misconduct in need of more harsh consequences. A barrier to adopting a new and more trauma-

informed approach for educators who believe in a discipline-oriented or more confrontational

style for student misbehavior is the perception that one is “being soft” (Walkley & Cox, 2013).

Meeting the needs of students is a collaborative effort among all school professionals.

The strategies associated with a trauma-informed environment need to span a continuum of

prevention through intensive intervention using a multi-pronged approach that includes access to

both internal and external supports (Chafouleas, Johnson, Overstreet, & Santos, 2016). Internal

supports such as school counselors, social workers, psychologists, and special education teachers

can help to facilitate coping when students are experiencing stressors. The goal is to provide

universal (Tier 1) supports for all students by fostering a positive environment and skill building.

Students who need more intensive services (Tiers 2 & 3) may require more targeted or individual

interventions to support academic, social-emotional, behavioral, and mental health needs. These

supports can extend to adult needs for education as well as support with regards to practices,

data, and systems.

It has been well documented that trauma changes the way children and adolescents

interact with others and they may adopt behaviors or patterns of thinking that can compound

their problems and cause further trauma. Evidence-based approaches have demonstrated the

importance of breaking the cycle of trauma by considering the question, “What happened to

you?” instead of “What’s wrong with you?” (SAMHSA, 2012). Multi-tiered frameworks of

service delivery such as Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) are built on

foundations involving early identification of risk, varied levels of intervention designed to teach

skills and prevent more serious problems which align well with a trauma-informed approach.

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The focus is on positive, preventive, and proactive approaches and a continual data-driven

evaluation of responses. It is critical for teacher preparation programs to address frameworks

such as PBIS. According to the National Education Association (2014), positive behavior

supports help teachers recognize the significance of classroom management and preventive

school discipline in order to maximize student success.

A shift in mindset puts the focus on what has happened to the child and what skills are

needed rather than focusing on discipline alone for behavior that may be a student’s attempt to

cope with elevated levels of stress (Greene, 2014). Failure to acknowledge the impact of

traumatic stress in children in the school setting may also lead to mislabeling students and giving

diagnoses such as attention deficit disorder and oppositional-defiant disorder among others

(Black, Woodsworth, Tremblay, & Carpenter, 2012). Further support for this movement came

from the recent reauthorization of the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) which included the

provision for trauma-informed approaches, training for school personnel, and recognition of the

strong relationship between a positive school climate and student learning (NEA, 2014; Prewitt,

2016).

Many children who have experienced traumatic events view the world as a dangerous

place and are more vulnerable to stress which can sabotage their ability to manage emotions and

use coping mechanisms that can help to regulate their behavior. The development of learning

environments that feel safe and supportive require underlying foundations such as trusting

relationships, organization and structure, and engagement that builds on student strengths and

teaches self-regulation skills. Teachers who provide trauma-sensitive supports in their

classrooms can play a significant role in healing for students impacted by trauma but those

practices will also benefit the growth and development of all students with whom they work. It

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is important for teacher educators to provide prospective teachers not only an understanding of

the importance of becoming a trauma-informed educator but specific strategies for K-12 teachers

to follow in order to become trauma-sensitive practitioners (Table 1). These strategies fall within

the three main components of the trauma-informed care movement.

Creating Safe Environments

The trauma-informed schools movement was created to encourage the development of

positive and supportive learning environments that are responsive to the needs of students who

have been impacted by trauma. Safety and consistency are cornerstones of a trauma-informed

educational practice. This is often created through the use of school-wide positive behavioral

interventions and supports and classroom expectations that are consistently taught and reinforced

(Cavanaugh, 2016). High rates of positive interactions help to build upon student strengths and

support feelings of success and self-efficacy as do increased peer supports and social skills

instruction (Sugai, O’Keefe, & Fallon, 2012). The classroom environment should be a place of

comfort and safety. The teacher can foster a caring classroom community where peers support

each other as well as modify the physical environment by considering desk arrangements, color,

lighting, music, scents, plants, and even alternative seating options. The environment can be the

first line of defense and set the stage for regulation to occur throughout the school day. Imagine

as a student coming from a loud and crowded bus ride, navigating through a busy hallway with a

school bell ringing to a classroom where the teacher greets you by name with a smile, lights are

lowered, the room is organized, there is calming music playing, and the schedule for the day is

clearly displayed in the front of the classroom with the expectations outlined for the beginning

routine. All students thrive and feel safe in an environment where the expectations are clear,

routines are predictable and consistent, and students know what to expect (Sugai & Horner,

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2010). Research indicates school and classroom environments benefit from the integration of

trauma-informed strategies within the PBIS framework which focuses on improving school

climate, reducing problem behaviors, and enhancing academic achievement (Chafouleas et al.,

2016).

Building Relationships and Connections

Students who have experienced trauma may have some difficulty forming healthy

relationships. Discouraged children often have a negative view of self, others, and the world

which may translate to maladaptive ways of dealing with others and school related tasks. Safe,

predictable, and consistent relationships can help to bring the brain back into regulation allowing

students to then be able to access higher level thinking and reasoning skills (Perry, 2011).

Supportive relationships with students that provide unconditional positive regard can promote

healing and growth. Perry (2011) referred to relationships as the “agents of change” and Comer

(1995) said, “No significant learning can take place without a significant relationship.”

According to student interviews, teacher actions that demonstrated care and respect included

both verbal and nonverbal signals and behaviors such as calling them by name, answering their

questions, talking respectfully to them, noticing and greeting them, and helping them when they

needed help (Payne, 2008). Students can often quickly tell when a teacher’s interactions and

intent are not genuine and if their behaviors indicate judgement or support.

Students impacted by trauma often have lagging social and emotional skills that can

make developing positive relationships and connections with them more challenging. Teacher

educators could introduce the 2 X 10 strategy to teacher candidates for practice (Wlodkowski,

1983). This strategy includes talking with the person for at least two minutes each day for ten

days in a row. The conversation should be brief, honest, allow for student voice, solution

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oriented, and a reminder the student is accountable to others (Smith & Lambert, 2008). This

simple strategy can increase student engagement, improve behavior, and send the message to the

student that you are interested and you care (Smith & Lambert, 2008).

Supporting and Teaching Emotional Regulation

Increasingly important is an awareness of the internal emotional state of the adult. When

a student exhibits disruptive or even aggressive behaviors an adult’s emotional reaction may

elicit a similar response. This is not only ineffective but can often escalate the situation.

Educators must maintain a focus on preventative strategies while also understanding how to

respond to challenging behaviors. According to Tackie, Nixon, and Keels (2018), aggressive or

disruptive behaviors are indicators that a physiological response inside the student’s brain and

body is also taking place. Adults may feel similarly making it difficult to respond in a calm and

thoughtful manner. Helpful strategies could be taught through role playing potential scenarios of

student disruptions and include depersonalizing the behavior (it’s not about you), remaining calm

and minimizing your outward reactions (using deep breathing and possibly some mindfulness

techniques), and using short and simple language (Tackie et al., 2018). A sequence of strategies

could include; 1) identify the behavior the student is displaying, 2) check to see if you interpreted

their behavior correctly, 3) affirm and validate student feelings, 4) assist the student in

identifying reasonable choices or options, and 5) follow up with the student and discuss what

went well, what possible changes or plans need to be in place for the future. Some things to

avoid may include 1) don’t argue or get into a power struggle, 2) don’t raise your voice, and 3)

don’t handle the situation in public in front of the student’s peers because you will open the door

to additional drama (Tackie et al., 2018).

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When a student is feeling stressed and overwhelmed or may be trying to deal with

traumatic or painful memories the pre-frontal cortex or rational thinking and problem-solving

areas of the brain shut down and a state of intense emotions with often impulsive responses takes

over (Siegel, 2011). Students need skills in order to manage stressors so it is critical that

teachers learn specific techniques they can model and practice with students that can build

coping strategies such as identifying and validating emotions, deep breathing, positive imagery,

and the creation of calming spaces or break times that can assist a student to calm emotions and

return to a focus on learning (Weist-Stevenson & Lee, 2016). Teachers in the field can access a

variety of support personnel such as the school counselor, social worker, and psychologist who

can provide further guidance in this area. Perry (2006) recommends a sequence of engagement

that begins with calming or managing emotions also referred to as regulation in order to be able

to connect with or relate to the student and then reason with them. Regulation can be done

independently by the student who has learned the skills and tools needed for reducing stress or

can be assisted by the teacher using a calm voice, giving choices, modeling use of sensory items

or moving to a calming area. Once regulated the teacher will b

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