Study of Emotion Read this description of a real study published by Stanley Schachter and Jerome E. Singer in Psychological Review in 1962, then answer the following questions. Co

In your peer review, provide guidance about writing style, formatting, references, accuracy, and critical thinking to help improve your peer’s critical analysis. Specify at least two positive aspects of your peer’s draft and at least two specific suggestions for improvement with supporting details and examples.
My peers draft is below
Opioids are an addictive substance that should be used carefully and appropriately to avoid the dangers of addiction, overdose, and death. This class of drug is found in the opium poppy plant and typically prescribed to treat the following symptoms: pain, diarrhea, and coughing (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2021). Common prescription opioids include hydrocodone, oxycodone, oxymorphone, morphine, codeine, and fentanyl. One of the issues with opioids is that individuals become addicted to the relaxed (high) feeling they experience and begin using them for non-medical reasons. While an individual is taking an opioid, they should be cautious and take the medication as prescribed by their doctor. Some misuse the medication in the following manner: swallowing, crushing, dissolving in water, injecting, and snorting (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2021). The brain is affected by opioids through its activation on receptors located in the brain, spinal cord, and other organs, specifically ones that involve feelings of pain and pleasure. “When opioids attach to these receptors, they block pain signals sent from the brain to the body and release large amounts of dopamine throughout the body” (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2021). Resulting in, the desire to chase that “high” feeling and continue use. Because of inadequate knowledge, individuals miss the harmful effects that follow opioid misuse such as drowsiness, confusion, nausea, constipation, euphoria, and slowed breathing. In addition, hypoxia (a condition that results when too little oxygen reaches the brain), accidental misuse or abuse in older adults, drug disease interactions, slowed metabolism, shared drug injection equipment, impaired judgment, and HIV from unprotected sex are also common health effects (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2021). The United States is currently seeing a rise in the use of prescription and non-prescription opioid drugs resulting in an epidemic. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 there has been a rise in starting or increasing substance use.
Describe Your Issue
During this time, many individuals faced hardships that affected their mental health and lead them to unhealthy coping mechanisms. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported a 13% increase in substance use due to stress and emotions related to COVID-19, and the ODMAP (Overdose Detection Mapping Application Program) also reported a concern with overdoses rising 18% nationwide since the year prior. In addition, the American Medical Association reported in December of 2020 that over 40 U.S. states are experiencing increases in opioid-related morality and worry for those who struggled with addiction prior to the pandemic (Abramson, 2021). Some factors contributing to the increase include shifts in drug availability, economic stress, loneliness, and anxiety about the virus. Being isolated while in a bad place mentally causes poor decision-making skills and abnormal behaviors that result in severe consequences. A severe consequence that “created” many worried health care professionals is the number of overdoses during the pandemic. “Compton says people are more likely to die when they are using drugs alone, because there’s no one there to call 911 or administer naloxone, an opioid-reversal agent” (Abramson, 2021). The need for recovery was obvious but incredibly difficult since clinics and community-based organizations were not providing services the way that they were pre pandemic. The Kentucky methadone clinics noticed an increase in patients ending treatment and a decrease in those beginning treatment. Those that work in health care were overwhelmed and unfortunately the priority was COVID-19 so many were receiving limited to inadequate care at this time (Abramson, 2021). Limitations were not only shown by physicians but patients as well through their fear of contracting the virus and becoming severely ill. The field of addictions includes major types of behavior addictions including gambling, food, and video games.
Differentiate Behavioral, or Process, Addictions and Social Norms for Their Applicability to Your Issue
Behavioral addiction is described as the need to continually participate in activities and behaviors regardless of the negative consequences it brings on the physical or mental health of that individual (Editorial Staff, 2022). One type of behavioral addiction is known as problem gambling which complicates a person’s life, job, and family. This involves going to the casino, playing slot machines, overnight poker games, online gambling, and sports betting. Individuals who become addicted to gambling face many hardships as they begin the treatment process such as losses, legal problems, foreclosure, bankruptcy, divorce, and lost careers (Editorial Staff, 2022). Another problematic behavioral addiction is food addiction. Food addiction causes an individual to impulsively eat unhealthy foods (high in fats, sugar, and/or salt) because of the “high” feeling they experience while doing so. “Additionally, people who are addicted to food may develop a tolerance for food, as is characteristic of people who are addicted to drugs or alcohol” (Editorial Staff, 2022). Meaning, the amount of food that they eat increases to ensure they will experience the “high” feeling their body craves. In addition, those that struggle with this disorder range from obese to having a normal BMI. Negative outcomes include damaged relationships, issues of self-esteem, and many health problems (Editorial Staff, 2022). Lastly, video games become an addiction when the infatuation for fantasy and escape makes an individual feel good. Being able to communicate with others online and playing as a character customized to one’s desire makes it easier for them to connect with people in the comfort of their home (Editorial Staff, 2022). “As compared to a substance abuse addiction or even to other process addictions, video game addiction may seem relatively harmless, and certainly many people can play video games on occasion without ever developing a problem.” (Editorial Staff, 2022). This is not the case for all as many individuals struggle with compulsive video game play and end up in a hard place. Some factors contributing to this are difficulty connecting and forming healthy relationships with others, maintaining responsibilities at work, and making choices that support their overall well-being. Receiving treatment is crucial to those who compulsively play video games because they will end up isolated from the real world, unable to function, lose time with family, and pursue their dreams to be successful (Editorial Staff, 2022). These behavioral addictions relate to the rise in substance abuse during the COVID-19 pandemic through the desperation an individual feels to cope with their emotions. Social norms also play a major role in a person’s misuse and abuse of substances. Although we are in control of our own actions, it is difficult when the individuals around you are not displaying appropriate behaviors especially at a young age. “It is assumed that young people are strongly influenced by what they perceive to be the group norms among their peers (norms = behaviours and attitudes) hence there is a strong likelihood that they will think and behave in similar ways” (Martin, 2011). For example, if the only chance a young person gets to spend time with their father/mother is while they are outside using substances the chance of them using is increased. This “creates” people to find the dangers provided from information campaigns irrelevant placing them at an increased risk of health issues (Martin, 2011). Being a positive influence and making good choices is important for those that look up to you because it shows what is expected of them and how they should behave. In relation to the COVID-19 pandemic, many individuals participated in poor behaviors since they were stuck at home. This makes me wonder, how many people participated in illegal or unhealthy behaviors around a younger person “creating” the behavior to be seen as a new normal once the pandemic was over. Through understanding this, we can assume how substance use starts and the fact that traditional approaches should be reviewed.
Explain the Impact
By developing adequate approaches, there is an increased chance that an individual will recover and continue their sobriety. “Behavioral therapies for addiction to prescription opioids help people modify their attitudes and behaviors related to drug use, increase healthy life skills, and persist with other forms of treatment, such as medication” (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2021). Having the option to persist with medication during the treatment process allows withdrawal symptoms to be less severe and create a positive attitude toward sobriety. Three medications that are commonly used to help during recovery include methadone, buprenorphine, and naltrexone. Methadone and buprenorphine activate opioid receptors to lessen withdrawal symptoms and cravings whereas naltrexone attaches to opioid receptors and blocks their effects (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2021). Often, individuals who relapse have a difficult time receiving treatment a second time because they fear the withdrawal process and how ill they felt at that time. This approach along side medicine is an effective treatment plan for those who struggle with an opioid use disorder. Often, an individual is also in need of support from others and healthy changes to maintain their sobriety as well as avoid relapse.
Analyze the Approaches
The peer-based approach involves support from individuals who have experience with addiction recovery. COVID-19 affected many, but one specific impact was that individuals were stuck at home in abusive or unstable living conditions influencing those who were previously addicted to opioids or new users to reach for opioids in hopes to cope with trauma. Since environmental and situational factors are known risk factors, this approach benefits many by offering greater housing stability to ensure that the chance of relapse is reduced. The peer-based approach also provides those who struggle with addiction a second chance to improve relationships with treatment providers, increase treatment retention, increase satisfaction with the overall treatment experience, improved access to social supports, decrease criminal justice involvement, reduced relapse rates, reduced re-hospitalization rates, and reduced substance use (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, n.d.). The harm-reduction approach provides services to those who use harmful substances. “These services decrease overdose fatalities, acute life-threatening infections related to unsterile drug injection, and chronic diseases such as HIV/HCV” (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2022). As I have mentioned previously, one impact of the pandemic in relation to opioid use is the increase in overdoses. With overdose on the rise, the harm-reduction approach would help decrease this amount and save those who were forced to stay at home with nobody around. If services were provided and well known to those who were struggling, they would have had a chance at survival and the chance to recover. Treatment approaches have evolved to properly address an individual’s substance use and any underlying issues hindering their sobriety.
Utility of Traditional and Current Treatment Approaches to Diverse Populations
Traditional treatment approaches posed many challenges for individuals who struggled to overcome their addiction. According to the Recovery Research Institute (n.d.) those that have a difficult time overcoming their addiction to opioids require treatment but unfortunately less than 30% receive it. The reason behind this is funding, treatment capacity, patient motivation, and patient access. Government agencies, researchers, clinicians, and the general community recognized the problematic percentage and barriers between the person addicted and treatment (Recovery Research Institute, n.d.). They also began developing and testing new treatment approaches which included emergency department referrals to treatment, buprenorphine/naloxone (i.e., Suboxone) treatment initiation in the emergency department, the incorporation of recovery support services and harm reduction services in community organizations, and low-threshold programs that encourage treatment engagement and retention by implementing a more flexible treatment model (e.g., not requiring counseling or routine drug testing) (Recovery Research Institute, n.d.). Although these approaches were successful in engagement and retention among high-risk and treatment resistant populations, it was clear that additional work was necessary which created the proposal for a new comprehensive model to stray individuals from traditional approaches. The Recovery Community Center Office-Based Opioid Treatment model is built on accurate community-based and professional treatment approaches involving hybrid recovery community organizations, office-based pharmacotherapy programs, emergency department pharmacotherapy programs, and low-threshold treatment programs (Recovery Research Institute, n.d.). “The Recovery Community Center Office-Based Opioid Treatment model is proposed as a way to expand the availability and accessibility to treatment, and to keep opioid use disorder patients engaged once they start treatment” (Recovery Research Institute, n.d.). This issue relates to the challenge of receiving treatment during the COVID-19 pandemic because physicians held off many appointments due to their focus on the virus and the overwhelming number of cases. Through this issue, I would assume that many people relapsed due to feelings of loneliness and lack of professional support. If opioid use disorder patients had access to a treatment model as efficient as this one during the pandemic, reports may have shown more success with sobriety and a decrease in the percentage of overdoses.
Recommendations
Given my evaluation of current research, I would recommend the following for addiction treatment programs in relation to opioid use disorder: be proactive and pay attention to behaviors when an individual is prescribed an opioid for surgeries or pain. If physicians paid close attention, there is a strong chance they could recognize addiction beginning and prescribe them suboxone to ensure a safe transition. “Medications for opioid use disorders are safe, effective, and save lives. These medicines interact with the same opioid receptors in the brain on which other prescription opioids act” (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2021). This is only one out of many articles that prove the effectiveness of my recommendation. In addition to this, I believe this evidence is more compelling when compared to evidence that may contradict my recommendation because I personally know individuals that have used medication to wean themselves off an opioid and they are thriving today. If you compare this to individuals who are continuously handed a prescription for opioids and their behaviors are not recognized, most of them end up resorting to substances that they purchase on the streets, putting themselves in imminent danger. In conclusion, the current research provided creates awareness on the opioid epidemic and the importance of consistent treatment regardless of seasonal sickness or new viruses since addiction treatment is essential.
Abramson, A. (2021). Substance use during the pandemic. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from Substance use during the pandemic (apa.org)
Editorial Staff. (2022). Behavioral Addictions. American Addiction Centers. Retrieved from What Is Process Addiction & Types of Addictive Behaviors? (americanaddictioncenters.org)
National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2021). What are prescription opioids? National Institutes of Health. Retrieved from Prescription Opioids DrugFacts | National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) (nih.gov)
Martin, K. (2011). The social norms approach to tackling substance use. Health Research Board. Retrieved from The social norms approach to tackling substance use. – Drugs and Alcohol
Recovery Research Institute. (n.d.). Evolving approaches to opioid use disorder treatment: A novel, community-based model for expanding treatment access. Retrieved from Evolving approaches to opioid use disorder treatment: A novel, community-based model for expanding treatment access – Recovery Research Institute (recoveryanswers.org)
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration. (n.d.). Peers Supporting Recovery from Substance Use Disorders. Retrieved from Value of Peers Infographics: Peer Recovery (samhsa.gov)
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration. (2022). Harm Reduction. SAMHSA. Retrieved from Harm Reduction | SAMHSA

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