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media. When the inte- gration of technology and interactive media in early childhood programs is built upon solid develop- mental foundations, and early childhood professionals are aware of both the challenges and the opportunities, educa- tors are positioned to improve program quality by intention- ally leveraging the potential of technology and media for the benefit of every child.

Technology and Interactive Media as Tools in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8

A joint position statement of the National Association for the Education of Young Children and the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media at Saint Vincent College

T elevision was once the newest technology in our homes, and then came videos and computers. Today’s children are growing up in a rapidly changing digital age that is

far different from that of their parents and grandpar- ents. A variety of technologies are all around us in our homes, offices, and schools. When used wisely, technology and media can support learning and relationships. Enjoyable and engaging shared expe- riences that optimize the potential for children’s learning and development can support children’s relationships both with adults and their peers. Thanks to a rich body of research, we know much about how young children grow, learn, play, and develop. There has never been a more important time to apply principles of development and learning when con- sidering the use of cutting-edge technologies and new

This statement is intended primarily to provide guidance to those working in early childhood education programs serving children from birth through age 8. Although not developed as a guide for families in the selection and use of technology and interactive media in their homes, the information here may be helpful to inform such decisions.

NAEYC and the Fred Rogers Center do not endorse or recom- mend software, hardware, curricula, or other materials.

P O S I T I O N S T A T E M E N T A D O P T E D J A N U A R Y 2 0 1 2

Interactive media refers to digital and analog materials, including soft- ware programs, applications (apps), broadcast and streaming media, some children’s television programming, e-books, the Internet, and other forms of content designed to facilitate active and creative use by young children and to encourage social engagement with other children and adults.

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This 2012 position statement reflects the ever-changing digital age and provides guidance for early childhood educators about the use of technology and interactive media in ways that can optimize opportunities for young children’s cognitive, social, emotional, physical, and linguistic development. In this position statement, the definition of technology tools encompasses a broad range of digital devices such as computers, tablets, multitouch screens, interactive whiteboards, mobile devices, cam- eras, DVD and music players, audio recorders, electronic toys, games, e-book readers, and older analog devices still being used such as tape recorders, VCRs, VHS tapes, record and cassette players, light tables, projectors, and microscopes. Throughout the process of researching and writing this position statement, we have been guided by the legacy of Fred Rogers. By appropriately and intentionally using the technology of his day—broadcast television—to connect with each individual child and with parents and families, Fred Rogers demonstrated the positive potential of using technology and media in ways that are grounded in prin- ciples of child development.

Statement of the Issues

Technology and interactive media are here to stay. Young children live in a world of interactive media. They are growing up at ease with digital devices that are rapidly becoming the tools of the culture at home, at school, at work, and in the community (Kerawalla & Crook 2002; Calvert et al. 2005; National Institute for Literacy 2008; Buckleitner 2009; Lisenbee 2009; Berson & Berson 2010; Chiong & Shuler 2010; Couse & Chen 2010; Rideout, Lauricella, & Wartella 2011). Technology tools for communication, collaboration, social network- ing, and user-generated content have transformed mainstream culture. In particular, these tools have transformed how parents and families manage their daily lives and seek out entertainment, how teachers use materials in the classroom with young children and com- municate with parents and families, and how we deliver teacher education and professional development (Ride- out, Vandewater, & Wartella 2003; Roberts & Foehr 2004; Rideout & Hamel 2006; Rideout 2007; Foundation for Excellence in Education 2010; Gutnick et al. 2010; Barron et al. 2011; Jackson 2011a, 2011b; Wahi et al. 2011). The pace of change is so rapid that society is experiencing a disruption almost as significant as when there was a shift from oral language to print literacy, and again when the printing press expanded access to books and the

printed word. The shift to new media literacies and the need for digital literacy that encom- passes both technology and media literacy will continue to shape the world in which young children are developing and learning (Linebarger & Piotrowski 2009; Flewitt 2011; Alper n.d.). The prevalence of electronic media in the lives of young children means that they are spending an increasing number of hours per week in front of and engaged with screens of all kinds, including televisions, computers, smartphones, tablets, handheld game devices, and game consoles (Common Sense Media 2011). The distinction among the devices, the content, and the user experience has been blurred by multitouch screens and movement-activated technologies that detect and respond to the child’s movements. With guidance, these vari- ous technology tools can be harnessed for learning and devel- opment; without guidance, usage can be inappropriate and/or interfere with learning and development.

There are concerns about whether young children should have access to technology and screen media in early childhood programs. Several professional and public health organiza- tions and child advocacy groups concerned with child development and health issues such as obesity have recom- mended that passive, non- interactive technology and screen media not be used in early childhood pro- grams and that there be no screen time for infants and toddlers. NAEYC and the Fred Rogers Center are also concerned about child development and child health issues and have considered them carefully when developing this position statement.

Non-interactive media include certain television programs, videos, DVDs, and streaming media now available on a vari- ety of screens. Noninteractive technology tools and media are not included in the definition and description of effective and appropriate use in this state- ment unless they are used in ways that promote active engagement and interactions. Noninteractive media can lead to passive viewing and over- exposure to screen time for young children and are not substitutes for interactive and engaging uses of digital media or for interactions with adults and other children.

The term digital literacy is used throughout this statement to encompass both technology and media literacy.

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The American Academy of Pediatrics (2009, 2010, 2011a, 2011b) and the White House Task Force on Childhood Obesity (2010) discourage any amount or type of screen media and screen time for children under 2 years of age and recommend no more than one to two hours of total screen time per day for children older than 2 (Funk et al. 2009; Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood 2010). The Early Childhood Obesity Prevention Policies (Birch, Parker, & Burns 2011; Institute of Medicine of the National Academies 2011) recommend that child care settings limit screen time (including television, videos, digital media, video games, mobile media, cell phones, and the Internet) for preschoolers (age 2 through 5) to fewer than 30 minutes per day for children in half-day programs or less than one hour per day for those in full-day programs. The report further encourages professionals to work with parents to limit screen time to fewer than two hours per day for children age 2 through 5. These recommendations to limit children’s exposure to screen time are related to two fac- tors potentially contributing to early childhood obesity: the food and beverage marketing that children may experience when they are watching television or interacting with other media and the amount of overall screen time to which they are exposed (Birch, Parker, & Burns 2011; Institute of Medicine of the National Academies 2011). The Let’s Move! Child Care initiative recommends that caregivers allow no screen time for children under 2 years of age. For children 2 and older, caregivers are encouraged to limit screen time to no more than 30 minutes per week during child care, and parents and caregivers are advised to work together to limit children to one to two hours of quality screen time per day (Schepper 2011; White House 2011). Early child- hood educators need to be aware of all these concerns and understand the critical role that they as educators play in mediating technology and media use and screen time for young children.

All screens are not created equal. The proliferation of digital devices with screens means that the precise meaning of “screen time” is elusive and no longer just a matter of how long a young child watches television, videos, or DVDs. Time spent in front of a television screen is just one aspect of how screen time needs to be understood and measured. Children and adults now have access to an ever-expanding selection of screens on computers, tablets, smartphones, handheld gaming devices, portable video players, digital cameras, video record- ers, and more. Screen time is the total amount of time spent in front of any and all of these screens (Common Sense Media 2011; Guernsey 2011c). As digital technology has expanded in scope beyond linear, non-interactive media to include interac- tive options, it is evident that each unique screen demands its

own criteria for best usage (Kleeman 2010). The challenge for early childhood educators is to make informed choices that maximize learning opportunities for children while managing screen time and mediating the potential for misuse and over- use of screen media, even as these devices offer new interfaces that increase their appeal and use to young children.

There is conflicting evidence on the value of technol- ogy in children’s development. Educators and parents have been cautioned about the negative impact of back- ground television (Kirkorian et al. 2009; AAP 2011b), pas- sive use of screen media (AAP 2011b), and the relationship between media use and child obesity (White House Task Force on Childhood Obesity 2010; Birch, Parker, & Burns 2011; Schepper 2011). Possible negative outcomes have been identified, such as irregular sleep patterns, behavioral issues, focus and attention problems, decreased academic performance, negative impact on socialization and lan- guage development, and the increase in the amount of time young children are spending in front of screens (Cordes & Miller 2000; Appel & O’Gara 2001; Christakis et al. 2004; Anderson & Pempek 2005; Rogow 2007; Vandewater et al. 2007; Brooks-Gunn & Donahue 2008; Common Sense Media 2008, 2011; Lee, Bartolic, & Vandewater 2009; Campaign for a Commercial-Free Childhood 2010; DeLoache et al. 2010; Tomopoulos et al. 2010; AAP 2011a, 2011b). However, research findings remain divided and therefore can be confusing to educators and parents. Some children’s media researchers have found no evidence to support the belief that screen media are inherently harmful. The evidence from public broadcasting’s Ready To Learn initia- tive suggests that when television shows and electronic resources have been carefully designed to incorporate what is known about effective reading instruction, they serve as positive and powerful tools for teaching and learning (Pas- nik et al. 2007; Neuman, Newman, & Dwyer 2010; Corpora- tion for Public Broadcasting 2011). Similarly, Wainwright and Linebarger (2006) concluded that while critics have issued many warnings against television and computers and their negative effects on children’s learning, the most logical conclusion to be drawn from the existing scholarly literature is that it is the educational content that mat- ters—not the format in which it is presented (Wainwright & Linebarger 2006). In short, there are some education- ally valuable television shows, websites, and other digital media, and there are some that are less valuable or even educationally worthless. The amount of time children spend with technology and media is important (Christakis & Garrison 2009; Vandewa- ter & Lee 2009; Tandon et al. 2011), but how children spend time with technology must also be taken into account when

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determining what is effective and appropriate (Christakis & Garrison 2009; Tandon et al. 2011). The impact of technol- ogy is mediated by teachers’ use of the same developmen- tally appropriate principles and practices that guide the use of print materials and all other learning tools and con- tent for young children (Van Scoter, Ellis, & Railsback 2001; Clements & Sarama 2003a; Plowman & Stephen 2005, 2007).

The appeal of technology can lead to inappropriate uses in early childhood settings. Technology and media are tools that are effective only when used appropriately. The appeal of technology and the steady stream of new devices may lead some educators to use technology for technology’s sake, rather than as a means to an end. Technology should not be used for activities that are not educationally sound, not developmentally appropriate, or not effective (electronic worksheets for preschoolers, for example). Passive use of technology and any type of screen media is an inappropriate replacement for active play, engagement with other children, and interactions with adults. Digitally literate educators who are grounded in child development theory and developmentally appropri- ate practices have the knowledge, skills, and experience to select and use technology tools and interactive media that suit the ages and developmental levels of the children in their care, and they know when and how to integrate tech- nology into the program effectively. Educators who lack technology skills and digital literacy are at risk of making inappropriate choices and using technology with young children in ways that can negatively impact learning and development.

Issues of equity and access remain unresolved. The poten- tial of technology and interactive media to positively influence healthy growth and development makes it important for early childhood educators to carefully consider issues of equity and access when they select, use, integrate, and evaluate technol- ogy and media. Early childhood educators have an opportunity to provide leadership in assuring equitable access to technol- ogy tools and interactive media experiences for the children, parents, and families in their care. In the early 1960s, Head Start and other early childhood programs targeted the differences in access to print media for children from differing economic backgrounds. Today, educators face similar challenges with regard to technology tools, media, and broadband access to the Internet. Chil- dren growing up in affluent families more often have access

to technology tools and broadband connections to the Internet in their homes, begin using the Internet at an early age, and have highly developed technology skills and begin- ning digital literacy when they enter school. Children in families with fewer resources may have little or no access to the latest technologies in their homes, early childhood settings, schools, or communities (Becker 2000; Burdette & Whitaker 2005; Calvert et al. 2005; National Institute for Literacy 2008; Cross, Woods, & Schweingruber 2009; Com- mon Sense Media 2011). Young children need opportunities to develop the early “technology-handling” skills associated with early digital literacy that are akin to the “book-handling” skills associ- ated with early literacy development (National Institute for Literacy 2008). The International Society for Technology in Education (2007) recommends basic skills in technology operations and concepts by age 5. Early childhood settings can provide opportunities for exploring digital cameras, audio and video recorders, printers, and other technolo- gies to children who otherwise might not have access to these tools. Educators should also consider the learning and creative advantage that high-quality interactive media can bring to children, especially when combined with skill- ful teaching and complementary curriculum resources that work together to accelerate learning and narrow the achievement gap between children from low-income fami- lies and their more affluent peers. When educators appropriately integrate technology and interactive media into their classrooms, equity and access are addressed by providing opportunities for all children to participate and learn (Judge, Puckett, & Cabuk 2004; Cross, Woods, & Schweingruber 2009). In such an environment, accommodations are made for children with special needs to use technology independently (Hasselbring & Glaser 2000), and technology strategies to support dual language learners are in place. Issues of equity and access also have implications for early childhood professionals and policymakers. Some early childhood educators face the same challenges in their own access to technology tools and Internet broadband at work or home as do the families of children in their care. Research and awareness of the value of technology tools and interactive media in early childhood education need to be shared with policy makers who are interested in issues of access and equity for children, parents, families, and teachers.

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The Position

It is the position of NAEYC and the Fred Rogers Center that:

Technology and interactive media are tools that can pro- mote effective learning and development when they are used intentionally by early childhood educators, within the framework of developmentally appropriate practice (NAEYC 2009a), to support learning goals established for individual children. The framework of developmentally appropriate practice begins with knowledge about what children of the age and developmental status represented in a particular group are typically like. This knowledge provides a general idea of the activities, routines, interac- tions, and curriculum that should be effective. Each child in the particular group is then considered both as an indi- vidual and within the context of that child’s specific family, community, culture, linguistic norms, social group, past experience (including learning and behavior), and current circumstances (www.naeyc.org/dap/core; retrieved Febru- ary 2, 2012). Children’s experiences with technology and interactive media are increasingly part of the context of their lives, which must be considered as part of the developmentally appropriate framework. To make informed decisions regarding the intentional use of technology and interactive media in ways that sup- port children’s learning and development, early childhood teachers and staff need information and resources on the nature of these tools and the implications of their use with children. NAEYC and the Fred Rogers Center offer the following principles to guide the use of technology and interactive media in early childhood programs.

Principles to Guide the Appropriate Use of Technology and Interactive Media as Tools in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8

Above all, the use of technology tools and interactive media should not harm children. The healthy cognitive, social, emotional, physical, and linguistic development of the whole child is as important in the digital age as ever. Access to technology tools and interactive media should not exclude, diminish, or interfere with children’s healthy communication, social interactions, play, and other developmentally appro- priate activities with peers, family members, and teachers. Technology and media should never be used in ways that are emotionally damaging, physically harmful, disrespectful,

degrading, dangerous, exploitative, or intimidating to children. This includes undue exposure to violence or highly sexualized images (NAEYC 1994; AAP 2009). Just as early childhood educators always have been encour- aged and advised to monitor and apply the latest research findings in areas such as health and child development, so too should they continually monitor and assess research findings on emerging issues related to technology, including 3D vision and eye health, exposure to electromagnetic fields and radia- tion from cellular phones (EMR Policy Institute 2011), toxins from lead paint or batteries, choking hazards involving small parts, child obesity, screen time, or any other potentially harmful, physiological, or developmental effects or side effects related to the use of technology.

Developmentally appropriate practices must guide decisions about whether and when to integrate technol- ogy and interactive media into early childhood pro- grams. Appropriate technology and media use balances and enhances the use of essential materials, activities, and interactions in the early childhood setting, becoming part of the daily routine (Anderson 2000; Van Scoter, Ellis, & Railsback 2001; Copple & Bredekamp 2009; NAEYC 2009a). Technology and media should not replace activities such as creative play, real-life exploration, physical activity, outdoor experiences, conversation, and social interactions that are important for children’s development. Technol- ogy and media should be used to support learning, not an isolated activity, and to expand young children’s access to new content (Guernsey 2010a, 2011b). For infants and toddlers, responsive interactions between adults and children are essential to early brain development and to cognitive, social, emotional, physical, and linguistic development. NAEYC and the Fred Rogers Center join the public health community in discouraging the use of screen media for children under the age of 2 in early childhood programs. Recognizing that there may be appropriate uses of technology for infants and toddlers in some contexts (for example, viewing digital photos, par- ticipating in Skype interactions with loved ones, co-viewing e-books, and engaging with some interactive apps), educa- tors should limit the amount of screen time and, as with all other experiences and activities with infants and toddlers, ensure that any use of technology and media serves as a way to strengthen adult-child relationships. Early child- hood educators always should use their knowledge of child development and effective practices to carefully and inten- tionally select and use technology and media if and when it serves healthy development, learning, creativity, interac- tions with others, and relationships. This is especially true for those working with infants and toddlers.

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Professional judgment is required to determine if and when a specific use of technology or media is age appropriate, individually appropriate, and culturally and linguistically appropriate. Early childhood educators are the decision makers in whether, how, what, when, and why technology and media are implemented through applying their expertise and knowledge of child development and learning, individual children’s interests and readiness, and the social and cultural contexts in which children live. The adult’s role is critical in making certain that thoughtful planning, careful implementation, reflection, and evaluation all guide decision making about how to introduce and inte- grate any form of technology or media into the classroom experience. Selecting appropriate technology and media for the classroom is similar to choosing any other learn- ing material. Teachers must constantly make reflective, responsive, and intentional judgments to promote positive outcomes for each child (NAEYC 2009a).

Developmentally appropriate teaching practices must always guide the selection of any classroom materials, including technology and interactive media. Teachers must take the time to evaluate and select technology and media for the classroom, carefully observe children’s use of the materials to identify opportunities and problems, and then make appropriate adaptations. They must be willing to learn about and become familiar with new technologies as they are introduced and be intentional in the choices they make, including ensuring that content is developmentally appropriate and that it communicates anti-bias messages. When selecting technology and media for children, teachers should not depend on unverifiable claims included in a product’s marketing material. In the selec- tion process, program directors and teachers should consider the allocation of limited resources and cost effectiveness, including initial cost, the ongoing costs of updating and upgrading hardware and software, and other nonspecified costs such as additional items needed to use the product. Other considerations include durability for active use by young children and replacement costs if the device is dropped or dam- aged. Incentives for children to use the product or buy more products from the vendor should be reviewed and considered carefully. If developers and publishers of technology and media commit to using research-based information in the development, marketing, and pro- motion of their products, the selection of technology and interactive media tools will be less driven by com- mercial concerns and will become less mysterious and easier to choose for teachers and parents (Buckleitner 2011a; Fred Rogers Center n.d.).

Appropriate use of technology and media depends on the age, developmental level, needs, interests, linguistic background, and abilities of each child. There is a devel- opmental progression in children’s use of tools and materi- als, typically moving from exploration to mastery and then to functional subordination (using the tools to accomplish other tasks). Anecdotal evidence suggests this same pro- gression is evident in the ways that children interact with technology tools. Children need time to explore the func- tionality of technology before they can be expected to use these tools to communicate. Just as we encourage children to use crayons and paper well before we expect them to write their names, it seems reasonable to provide access to technology tools for exploration and experimentation. Certainly, most technology and media are inappropriate for children from birth to age 2 (at the time of this writing), and there has been no documented association between passive viewing of screen media and specific learning out- comes in infants and toddlers (Schmidt et al. 2009). Infants and toddlers need responsive interactions with adults. Yet mobile, multitouch screens and newer technologies have changed the way our youngest children interact with images, sounds, and ideas (Buckleitner 2011b). Infant care- givers must be sure that any exposure to technology and media is very limited; that it is used for exploration and includes shared joint attention and language-rich interac- tions; and that it does not

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