The literature review assignment should be 7 to 10 content pages in length and must include: Title page; Introduction; Statement of the Problem; Research Questions and Hypotheses; Overv

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Female Juvenile Delinquency Literature Review

V. Lynn Tankersley

College of Professional Advancement, Mercer University

COUN 621: Research Methods and Program Evaluation

Professor Tankersley

April 20, 2022

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Female Juvenile Delinquency Literature Review

This is a review of the empirical literature relating to risk factors associated with criminal

behavior in the juvenile female offender population. Their risk factors arise from multiple

environmental entities; thus, this review summarizes and categorizes prior empirical findings to

better understand the dynamics of these complex factors.

Statement of the Problem

The population of female juvenile offenders in the United States continues to grow in

size, concern, and violent tendencies. Between 1994 and 2003, arrests for juvenile females

generally increased more (or decreased less) than male arrests in most offense categories

(Snyder, 2005). In Texas in 2000, 28.6% of all referrals to county juvenile probation departments

involved females (Texas Juvenile Probation Commission, 2002). According to Sondheimer

(2001) “given the multitude of risks associated with juvenile delinquency and the detrimental

lifetime outcomes such a course may likely take, comprehensive approaches to understanding

and providing services for this [female] population of youths is paramount” (p.87). It is based on

this recommendation that this current research project has taken its shape.

Research Question

This research study is built around determining the risk factors influencing juvenile

delinquency for females in Dallas County, Texas.

Methods of Literature Review

Studies chosen for this analysis had to consider females between 5 and 21 years of age,

employ a racially diverse sample, define an offender as a person who had at least one lifetime

arrest, and provide empirically based research data regarding characteristics of female juvenile

offenders in the United States. Computer searches of the databases Academic Search Premier,

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Criminal Justice Periodicals, EBSCOhost, Educational Resources Information Center, ProQuest,

Science Direct, and the United States Department of Justice were conducted to locate published

articles utilizing samples collected from 1992 to the present using the following key words:

female delinquency, juvenile crime, female offenders, recidivism, girls crime, risk factors,

female juvenile offenders, female gangs, federal juvenile policy, and prediction of violence. In

addition, as articles were obtained, their bibliographies were explored to identify additional

studies regarding the target population.

Criteria for Inclusion

For this analysis, 1992 was selected as the starting point for sample data collection

because of the changes in federal policies regarding female offenders that occurred when the

Juvenile Justice Delinquency Prevention Act was reauthorized. Due to the relative novelty of

research regarding female juvenile delinquent behaviors, there is a great degree of variability in

the empirical studies included in this analysis. Studies investigating juveniles often vary in their

considered age range; some studies included young adults (over the age of 21) as juveniles and

others limited juveniles to a given age (most frequently younger than 18). Ultimately, 29

published studies, representing 29 unique samples, were identified as meeting criteria for

inclusion in this analysis.

Study Objectives and Hypotheses

In this current empirical review, 16 of the 29 studies took an exploratory approach in an

attempt to identify and clarify risk and protective factors for female juvenile delinquency and

gang involvement (Bachman et al., 2002; Belknap et al., 1997; Bloom et al., 2002; Cauffman et

al., 1998; Esbensen et al., 1999; Fejes-Mendoza et al., 1995; Goldstein et al., 2003; Hipwell et

al., 2002; Kakar et al., 2002; Kataoka et al., 2001; McKnight et al., 2002; Molidor, 1996;

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Shulmire, 1996; Walrath et al., 2002; Wang, 2000) while another study explored risk factors

associated with recidivism among female juvenile offenders (Archwamety & Katsiyannis, 1998).

Some of the studies examining risk factors for female delinquency specifically examined the

relationship between alcohol, drugs, and delinquency (Bachman et al., 2002; Goldstein et al.,

2003; Kataoka et al., 2001; Kim et al., 2000) while other studies considered topics surrounding

gang involvement by female juveniles (Esbensen et al., 1999; Joe et al., 1995; Molidor, 1996;

Shulmire, 1996; Walker-Barnes et al., 2001; Wang, 2000).

Theoretical Frameworks/Clinical Research Design

Only two studies specifically identify the theoretical frameworks for their research

(Emerson et al., 2001; Wallace Goodard et al., 2000). Fortunately, both studies identify social

learning theory as a base for their research; although they do not agree as to whether to use social

learning by itself or in conjunction with other theories such as strain or social control.

Sample Sizes

Sample sizes typically were small, but they ranged from: under 20 (Molidor, 1996; Pugh-

Lilly et al., 2001; Sanger et al., 2000), under 100 (Archwamety et al., 1998; Belknap et al., 1997;

Cauffman et al., 1998; Chamberlain et al., 1994; Emerson et al., 2001; Fejes-Mendoza et al.,

1995; Joe et al., 1995; Kakar et al., 2002; Kataoka et al., 2001; Kerpelman et al., 1999; Walker-

Barnes et al., 2001;), under 1000 (Acoca, 1998; Davies et al., 1997; Goldstein et al., 2003;

Wang, 2000), under 3000 (Bachman et al., 2002; Hipwell et al., 2002; McKnight et al., 2002;

Miller, 1994; Wallace Goddard et al., 2000; Walrath et al., 2002), and greater than 5,000

(Esbensen et al., 1999; Kempf-Leonard et al., 2000; Kim et al., 2000). Thus, most studies

utilized samples under 100 respondents and most studies were conducted on females only

(Acoca, 1998; Archwamety et al., 1998; Belknap et al., 1997; Cauffman et al., 1998; Davies et

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al., 1997; Emerson et al., 2001; Fejes-Mendoza et al., 1995; Hipwell, et al., 2002; Kakar et al.,

2002; Kataoka et al., 2001; Kerpelman et al., 1999; Molidor; 1996; Pugh-Lily et al., 2001;

Sanger et al., 2000; Shulmire, 1996; Walker-Barnes et al., 2001; Wang, 2000).

Sample Collection Methods

For most studies utilized in this analysis, the samples were based upon non-probability

and convenience, sample sizes were typically small, and data collection was primarily done

either qualitatively or through mixed qualitative and quantitative methods. Face-to-face

interviews and/or questionnaires were the predominant means of data collection, however, in

some cases, focus groups with female offenders themselves and sometimes the professional staff

that work with female juvenile delinquents (Belknap et al., 1997; Bloom et al., 2002; Kakar et

al., 2002; Kempf-Leonard et al., 2000) were utilized as the sample source. The most commonly

used standardized measurement tool is the Self-Reported Delinquency scale or a modified

version of the same tool (Davies et al., 1997; Pugh-Lily et al., 2001); other studies that employed

quantitative methods typically utilized surveys created by the author (Esbensen et al., 1999;

Wallace-Goddard et al., 2000; Wang, 2000).

Statistical Analysis

Descriptive statistics and frequencies were utilized often to analyze the study data

(Acoca, 1998; Belknap et al., 1997; Bloom et al., 2002; Cauffman et al., 1998; Emerson et al.,

2001; Esbensen et al., 1999; Fejes-Mendoza et al., 1995; Kerpelman et al., 1999; Molidor, 1996;

Wang, 2000) although multivariate statistics (including logistic regression and ANOVA) were

most commonly employed (Archwamety et al., 1998; Bachman et al., 2002; Chamberlain et al.,

1994; Davies et al., 1997; Hipwell, et al., 2002; Kakar et al., 2002; Kataoka et al., 2001; Kempf-

Leonard et al., 2000; Kim et al., 2000; McKnight et al., 2002; Miller, 1994; Shulmire, 1996;

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Walker-Barnes et al., 2001; Wallace Goddard et al., 2000; Walrath et al., 2002), and qualitative

analysis was utilized in one study (Sanger et al., 2000).

Relevant Research Findings

Racial Demographics

Out of the 29 studies included in this review, 24 reported the race of the respondents; in

12 studies the majority (almost one half or more) of female delinquents surveyed were

Caucasian, followed by African Americans, and then Hispanic, Asian and/or Native American

(Archwamety et al., 1998; Bachman et al., 2002; Davies et al., 1997; Emerson et al., 2001;

Goldstein et al., 2003; Kempf-Leonard et al., 2000; Kerpelman et al., 1999; McKnight et al.,

2002; Miller, 1994; Sanger et al., 2000; Walrath et al., 2002), in 6 studies, almost 50% or more

of all respondents were African American (Belknap et al., 1997; Kakar et al., 2002; Kataoka et

al., 2001; Pugh-Lilly et al., 2001; Walker et al., 2001; Wallace Goddard et al., 2000) and in the 6

remaining studies, the ethnicity of respondents was generally evenly distributed between African

Americans, Caucasians, or Hispanics, (Cauffman et al., 1998; Esbensen et al., 1999; Hipwell et

al., 2002; Kim et al., 2000; Molidor, 1996; Wang, 2000). In these 24 studies Asians, and Native

Americans always made up less than 25% of all respondents; only one study was based on a

primarily Asian and Pacific Islander sample (Joe & Chesney-Lind, 1995).

Age

The median age of most female participants was 15 to 16 years old (Archwamety et al.,

1998; Davies et al., 1997; Fejes-Mendoza et al., 1995; Joe et al., 1995; Kakar et al., 2002;

Kataoka et al., 2001; Miller, 1994; Molidor, 1996; Pugh-Lilly et al., 2001; Sanger et al., 2000;

Shulmire, 1996; Walker et al., 2001). One study (Hipwell et al., 2002) included a very young

population (5 to 8 year olds) in an effort to provide information about early onset of disruptive

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and antisocial behaviors that are commonly associated with referrals to the juvenile justice

system. While another study (Cauffman et al., 1998) included older offenders (up to age 22) that

could be classified as adults, depending on which state or jurisdiction they reside within.

Education

Educational histories of female juvenile delinquents consistently reveal academic

difficulties and/or failure (Acoca, 1998; Archwamety et al., 1998; Bachman et al., 2001; Davies

et al., 1997; Emerson et al., 2001; Fejes-Mendoza et al., 1995; Kakar et al., 2002; Molidor; 1996;

Sanger et al., 2000; Shulmire, 1996; Walker-Barnes et al., 2001; Walrath et al., 2003; Wang,

2000) and that a high percentage of female offenders are in need of special education services

(Acoca, 1998; Archwamety et al., 1998; Emerson et al., 2001; Fejes-Mendoza et al., 1995; Kakar

et al., 2002; Kataoka et al., 2001; Sanger et al., 2000; Shulmire, 1996). Most female offenders

were in the 9th grade or lower, having been held back for at least one year in school (Acoca,

1998; Archwamety et al., 1998; Chamberlain et al., 1994; Fejes-Mendoza et al., 1995; Molidor,

1996).

Offenses

Analysis of offense patterns reveals the non-serious nature (i.e.: running away, truancy,

and incorrigibility) of the majority of these young women’s criminal histories (Belknap et al.,

1997; Chamberlain et al., 1994; Fejes-Mendoza et al., 1995; Goldstein et al., 2003; Kempf-

Leonard et al., 2000; Kerpelman et al., 1999; Pugh-Lilly et al., 2001; Miller, 1994; Wallace

Goddard et al., 2000; Walrath et al., 2003). Fejes-Mendoza et al., (1995) also found through an

interview process that most girls had started a deviant episode by running away from home, and

once on the run, they committed more serious and violent offenses as a means of survival on the

streets. Consequently, some of the young women studied revealed high levels of violent offenses

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including assault, armed robberies, drug sales, and even murder (Archwamety et al., 1998;

Bachman et al., 2000; Belknap et al., 1997; Cauffman et al., 1998; Emerson et al., 2001;

Esbensen et al., 1999; Goldstein et al., 2003; Joe et al., 1995; Kakar et al., 2002; Kataoka et al.,

2001; Kerpelman et al., 1999; Kim et al., 2000; Miller, 1994; Molidor, 1996; Pugh-Lilly et al.,

2001; Wang, 2000).

Drugs

Many female juvenile offenders have a history of drug use or distribution; most studies

report almost 50% of respondents had used drugs on a regular basis (Acoca, 1998; Archwamety

et al., 1998; Bachman et al., 2000; Belknap et al., 1997; Chamberlain et al., 1994; Emerson et al.,

2001; Esbensen et al., 1999; Fejes-Mendoza et al., 1995; Goldstein et al., 2003; Joe et al., 1995;

Kakar et al., 2002; Kataoka et al., 2001; Kim et al., 2000; Walrath et al., 2003; Wang, 2000).

The most commonly used substances by juvenile girls are tobacco, marijuana, or alcohol

(Bachman et al., 2000; Joe et al., 1995; Kim et al., 2000). Another concern for the females who

abuse substances relates to the prevalence of young women who also suffer from a mental health

or emotional disorder in conjunction with their substance abuse (Acoca, 1998; Bloom et al.,

2002; Davies et al., 1997; Goldstein et al., 2003; Kataoka et al., 2001; Walrath et al., 2003). In

addition, Goldstein et al., (2003) found that 63% of incarcerated females sampled were

depressed, 56.3% were anxious, and 71.7% reported clinical levels of substance use problems.

Pregnancy and Motherhood

According to a 1997 report, “nearly 1 million American teenagers [about 10 percent of all

15 to 19-year-old females] become pregnant each year; about 33% abort their pregnancy, 14%

miscarry, 52% bear the child, and 72% of the pregnancies are out of wedlock” (Maynard &

Garry, 1997, p.1). In this review of the literature, several studies included respondents who were

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pregnant or parenting at the time of the study or had previously had a miscarriage or abortion

(Acoca, 1998; Belknap et al., 1997; Bloom et al., 2002; Emerson et al., 2001). Unfortunately,

several other studies included information about youth who were engaging in risky sexual

behaviors including prostitution, unprotected sex, gang rapes, and exchanging sexual favors for

drugs (Cauffman et al., 1998; Goldstein et al., 2003; Miller, 1994; Molidor, 1996). Molidor

(1996) describes a female respondent’s recount of “pulling a train” where the interviewee had

sex with 11 male gang members in the same night as a gang initiation rite.

Mental Health

Psychological characteristics of female juvenile delinquents tend to include symptoms of

mental health problems (depression), problems with emotion management (anger and anxiety),

as well as low levels of self-worth (self-esteem and suicidal ideation). According to Obeidallah

& Earls (1999) “the experience of depression during adolescence is hypothesized to be a central

pathway through which girls’ serious antisocial behavior develops” (p. 1). Throughout the

research included in this literature review, studies included findings based on youth who suffer

from depression (Acoca, 1998; Archwamety et al., 1998; Davies et al., 1997; Emerson et al.,

2001; Goldstein et al., 2003; Wallace Goddard et al., 2000) as well as respondents who reported

problems coping with high levels of anger or anxiety (Acoca, 1998; Belknap et al., 1997;

Emerson et al., 2001; Goldstein et al., 2003; Kataoka et al., 2001; Miller, 1994; Molidor, 1996;

Pugh-Lilly et al., 2001; Walker-Barnes et al., 2001; Wallace Goddard et al., 2000).

Self-Esteem and Suicide

According to Obeidallah & Earls (1999) “depressed adolescents tend to be withdrawn,

have limited interests, and suffer from low self-esteem” (p. 1); subsequently, several studies

reported findings based on youth who suffered from low levels of self-esteem and self-worth

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(Acoca, 1998; Bloom et al., 2002; Esbensen et al., 1999; Miller, 1994; Shulmire, 1996; Wang,

2000) as well as self-mutilation and previous suicide attempts (Acoca, 1998; Archwamety et al.,

1998; Belknap et al., 1997; Miller, 1994; Walrath et al., 2003). Of those studies reporting youths’

experiences of low self-esteem, Shulmire (1996) found gang-involved adolescent women had

significantly lower levels of self-efficacy and self-esteem than at-risk and non-gang involved

women. While Miller (1994) found 65% of her incarcerated female sample had thought of

suicide at least once in their lifetime, as compared with 26% of the incarcerated males sampled.

Miller (1994) also found “more than twice as many females (56%) as males (26%) reported at

least one suicide attempt” (p.135). Thus, young, incarcerated females are not only experiencing

low levels of self-esteem, but their levels of self-worth are impacting their decision-making skills

to the point lethal options are often considered as a means of coping with stress.

Peer Pressure

Regardless of the socioeconomic status of a child’s neighborhood, numerous studies

report that female teenagers experience strong levels of peer pressure (Bloom et al., 2002;

Esbensen et al., 1999; Joe et al., 1995; Walker-Barnes et al., 2001; Wallace Goddard et al., 2000;

Wang, 2000) to conform to and engage in unlawful activities with their peer group. In an effort

to determine both risk and protective factors for female teenage offending, Bloom et al., (2002)

found that peer drug use and the availability of substances were important risk factors, while

community service and positive peer cultures were important protective factors.

Gangs and Violence

Often times these delinquent peer activities include gang-related actions (Acoca, 1998;

Archwamety et al., 1998; Bloom et al., 2002; Esbensen et al., 1999; Fejes-Mendoza et al., 1995;

Joe et al., 1995; Molidor, 1996; Shulmire, 1996; Walker-Barnes et al., 2001; Wallace Goddard et

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al., 2000; Wang, 2000) and violence (Acoca, 1998; Bachman et al., 2002; Belknap et al., 1997;

2001). Examples of these violent acts were illustrated by Molidor (1996) when he sampled

incarcerated female gang members in Texas; he found that in order to join their gangs, these girls

had to endure some type of initiation ritual, including “’walking the line (a beating),’ ‘pulling a

train (sex with multiple partners),’ getting a tattoo, participating in a robbery, or participating in a

drive-by shooting” (p. 253).

Family Units

While some studies included female offenders from intact biological or two parent family

units (Bachman et al., 2002; Esbensen et al., 1999; Fejes-Mendoza et al., 1995; Hipwell et al.,

2002; Joe et al., 1995; Kerpelman et al., 1999; Wallace Goddard et al., 2000), most studies

revealed offenders from primarily single parent or divorced homes (Belknap et al., 1997; Bloom

et al., 2002; Chamberlain et al., 1994; Emerson et al., 2001; Kakar et al., 2002; Kim et al., 2000;

Shulmire, 1996). In the Esbensen et al., (1999) study of the differences between gang and non-

gang boys and girls, the authors found that “half of the gang boys and 43% of the gang girls

reported living with both parents,” (p. 40), and “for White, Hispanic and other youth, gang

members were more likely than non-gang youth to live in single-parent homes” (p. 40).

Abuse by Family

Typically, the teenage female offenders had experienced some form of abuse (physical,

emotional, or sexual) or neglect from a family member (Acoca, 1998; Belknap et al., 1997;

Fejes-Mendoza et al., 1995; Joe et al., 1995; Kakar et al., 2002; Molidor, 1996; Wallace Goddard

et al., 2000). One respondent in the Joe et al., (1995) study revealed that she had joined her gang

in order to provide her some protection from her father’s physical abuse while a participant in

Molidor’s (1996) study revealed that she was being sexually abused by her step-father, and if her

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uncle had been aware of the abuse, the uncle would have killed the step-father while drunk at

Thanksgiving dinner.

Family Dynamics

Other important trends identified for these female juvenile offenders include problems

with communication amid their family members and primary caretakers (Belknap et al., 1997;

Bloom et al., 2002; Esbensen et al., 1999; Fejes-Mendoza et al., 1995; Joe et al., 1995; Kakar et

al., 2002; Kerpelman et al., 1999; Sanger et al., 2000; Shulmire, 1996; Walker-Barnes et al.,

2001; Wallace Goddard et al., 2000). Kerpelman et al., (1999) specifically considered the

relationships between adjudicated daughters and their mothers; in their study, the authors found

that “both mothers and daughters typically reported ineffective problem-solving strategies,

evidenced by poor communication, lack of conflict management skills, and a tendency to yell

and/or isolate when angry” (p. 326).

Finally, many respondents reported general problems such as discord within their family

unit (Acoca, 1998; Belknap et al., 1997; Bloom et al., 2002; Davies et al., 1997; Emerson et al.,

2001; Wang, 2000). An example of this general family discord can be found in the Kakar et al.,

(2002) sample where most of the young women described family environments where violence,

instability, and chaos were the norm, and the respondents felt that they grew up in an untrusting

environment.

Limitations of Current Analysis

Regarding limitations inherent in the current analysis, one glaring factor that must be

acknowledged is that half of the studies included a predominately Caucasian sample, yet multiple

statistical reports note that “African American girls make up nearly half of all those in secure

detention and Latinos constitute 13%” and “seven of every 10 cases involving white girls are

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dismissed, compared with 3 of every 10 cases for African American girls” (American Bar

Association, 2001, p. 22). Yet not one of the 29 studies included in this analysis contains any

information as to causes of the disproportionate confinement of minority females or information

on racial bias in arrest rates. By relying on samples that are neither ethnically reflective nor

randomly selected from the actual juvenile female population, the levels of significance for many

of these risk factors could be distorted as well as the fact that some risk factors could be

overlooked.

Another limitation is that the studies are geographically limited; all of the studies

included were conducted with samples from the United States. Thus, the distribution of these

findings is limited to certain areas of North America, and may not be valid, generally speaking,

in other regions and cultures. Fortunately, the international research community, including

Canada, Holland, and Great Britain are also in the process of developing a better understanding

of the risk factors influencing their female adolescents to become involved in delinquent

activities. Therefore, additional research articles from the international community can be

utilized to lend additional support for the United States’ findings or provide a challenging

perspective. Should studies outside of the United States have different results in similar studies,

future research could explore what factors have influenced the differing results.

Despite the above limitations, because of the relative newness of research into this field,

each of these studies have contributed to the body of knowledge regarding these teenage

offenders, and can be utilized to create more rigorous and credible future research.

Conclusions

Each of the 29 articles included in this empirical review have contributed to the growing

body of knowledge regarding the risk factors influencing female juveniles to becoming involved

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in delinquent and criminal activities. Almost all of the studies included report similar findings in

each of the topic areas, with a few exceptions, yet much of the empirical research prior to 1992

found that female and male juveniles were getting into trouble for similar reasons or showed

females had low levels of involvement in delinquent activities. Therefore, as time passes,

standardized instruments are developed, and as theoretical perspectives are increasingly

incorporated, researchers may find that the risk factors currently considered exerting the greatest

influence on female adolescents are no longer in the forefront.

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References

Acoca, L. (1998). Outside/inside: The violation of American girls at home, on the streets, and in

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