Strength of association. When the research problem is established, a research hypothesis is formulated about an expected association between variables.
Recall the causal criteria presented by Sir Austin Bradford Hill in 1965.
Strength of association. When the research problem is established, a research hypothesis is formulated about an expected association between variables. A study design is then selected, and an appropriate statistical test applied to the data. The statistical association is then deemed to be significant or not. In general, a strong statistical association between an exposure and health outcome provides greater evidence of there being a causal association because it is more likely to be real (valid).
2. Consistency of association. This occurs when associations are replicated by different investigators, in different settings, with different methods.
3. Specificity. Specificity of association means an exposure is associated with only one disease or the disease is associated with only one exposure.
4. Temporality. In order for an exposure to cause a disease, the exposure must precede the disease.
5. Biologic gradient. An increasing amount of exposure increases the risk of disease.
6. Biological plausibility. Is the association biologically supported? Biological assessment often involves experiments in controlled laboratory environments.
7. Coherence. Causal inference is consistent with known epidemiologic patterns of disease.
8. Analogy. Analogous situations with previously demonstrated causal associations provide support of there being a causal association.
9. Experimental evidence. The randomized, double-blind experimental study design is the best for establishing cause-effect relationships. This is because randomization is effective in balancing out the effect of known and unknown confounders and blinding is effective at controlling for bias.
Select a disease or condition and identify the potential exposure and the outcome.
Discuss the causal criteria that apply to your selected outcome and exposure.
Compare a direct causal association with an indirect causal association. Use specific examples.
Define and compare the difference between statistical inference and causal inference.
Please include references you use.
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