Read the Clawson article, select one of the 6 major theories (and a specific approach within the theory. Do some additional reading on your selected theory/approach, enough to get the ‘gist
read the Clawson article, select one of the 6 major theories (and a specific approach within the theory. Do some additional reading on your selected theory/approach, enough to get the "gist" and be able to summarize it in your own words.
8/25/22, 9:42 PM Homework: 2228-MANA-5360-020-LEADERSHIP AND TEAMS
https://uta.instructure.com/courses/125842/pages/homework?module_item_id=5055809 1/2
Homework IN ADDITION to reading the Clawson article in full prior to Saturday's class… here's the additional "pre-work"/homework for Saturday:
Because there’s A LOT of leadership theory content to cover, and we have only two class sessions to do it, our lectures/discussions will hit the high points on four major theories: Trait, Behavioral/Skill, Situational/Contingency, and Transformational. Specifically, we'll be covering those in GREEN FONT further below.
So, your first class assignment provides the opportunity to go deeper into a specific theory or approach of greatest interest to you (that is NOT among those highlighted in green).
Assignment:
Once you’ve read the Clawson article, select one of the 6 major theories (and a specific approach within the theory, such as Gardner’s Attributes… that is NOT highlighted in green.) Do some additional reading on your selected theory/approach, enough to get the "gist" and be able to summarize it in your own words. Bring your notes to class; this may include a series of distilled bullet points or full narrative — as long as it summarizes the theory accurately but in your own words.
Your theory/approach options (taken directly from the Clawson article) include those NOT in green font (a.k.a., anything in black is fair game):
Trait
“Great Man” Stogdill Maccoby’s Types Gardner’s Attributes Collins’ 2 Traits
Behavioral
[Ohio State & U. of Mich. Studies] Mintzberg’s 10 Roles Kotter’s Functions of Mgmt. & Ldrshp. Stewart’s 3-part Theory Kouzes and Posner’s 5 Practices Ulrich et al.’s Results Focus
Power & Influence
McClelland’s 2 Faces of Power
8/25/22, 9:42 PM Homework: 2228-MANA-5360-020-LEADERSHIP AND TEAMS
https://uta.instructure.com/courses/125842/pages/homework?module_item_id=5055809 2/2
Winter’s Theory The West Point Way Social Exchange Theory Strategic Contingencies Theory
Situational Approach
Hersey & Blanchard Situational Theory House’s Path-Goal Theory Fiedler’s Contingency Model Leadership Substitutes Theory Yukl’s Multiple-Linkage Model Cognitive Resources Theory
Charismatic Approach
House’s Theory of Charismatic Leadership Attribution Theory of Charisma Self-concept Theory of Charismatic Leadership
Transformational Approach
Bennis’ Theory of Leadership Burns’ Theory of Leadership Bass’ Theory of Transformational Leadership Tichy and Devanna’s Transformational Leadership Process Schein’s Model of Organizational Culture and Leadership
Green font = Covered in course lectures; select a theory/approach in black font.
,
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This technical note was prepared by Professor James G. Clawson. Copyright 1989 by the University of Virginia Darden School Foundation, Charlottesville, VA. All rights reserved. To order copies, send an e-mail to [email protected] No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, used in a spreadsheet, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—without the permission of the Darden School Foundation. Rev. 12/99.
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Leadership has been widely studied over a long period of time, yet it remains an elusive phenomenon to understand and develop. This note offers an overview of some of the major leadership theories. The theories are grouped according to the research approaches that characterize them. The six categories are the trait, behavioral, power and influence, situational, charismatic, and transformational approaches. Simple direct statements of the main assumptions and conceptual points related to each theory comprise the bulk of the note. Trait Approach
The trait approach—one of the earliest used to study leadership—emphasizes the personal traits of leaders. The underlying assumption is that certain people possess innate characteristics that make them better leaders than others. The “Great Man” theory of leadership
Leaders are born, not made. Leadership ability arises from innate, internal traits. Some people have them, and some don’t. It is our job to figure out what these characteristics are so we can use them to identify potential leaders. No amount of training or coaching will make a leader out of someone who does not possess these traits. Stogdill’s leadership traits Bass, Bernard M. Bass & Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership. New York: The Free Press, 1981. This book summarizes more than 3,000 books and articles on leadership, spanning the period from 1947 to 1980. Most attempts to pursue the “Great Man” avenue of research found difficulty in identifying specific traits. Stogdill, however, was able to summarize some common traits among effective leaders:
The leader is characterized by a strong drive for responsibility and task completion, vigor and persistence in pursuit of goals, venturesomeness and originality in problem solving, drive to exercise initiative in social situations, self-confidence and sense of personal identity, willingness to accept consequences of decision and
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action, readiness to absorb interpersonal stress, willingness to tolerate frustration and delay, ability to influence other persons’ behavior, and capacity to structure social interaction systems to the purpose at hand.
“Great Man” theory traits
We offer a simple 10-point scale in case you wish to assess yourself on some of the dimensions of the “Great Man” theory.
Traits Adaptable to situations 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Alert to social environment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ambitious and achievement-oriented 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Assertive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Cooperative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Decisive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Dependable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Energetic (high activity level) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Dominant (desire to influence others) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Persistent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Self-confident 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Tolerant of stress 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Willing to assume responsibility 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Skills Clever (intelligent) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Conceptually skilled 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Creative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Diplomatic and tactful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Fluent in speaking 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Knowledgeable about group task 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Organized (administrative ability) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Persuasive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Socially skilled 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Maccoby’s Leader Maccoby, Michael. Leader. New York: Ballantine, 1981. It is a person’s orientation to work that identifies his potential as a great leader. New leaders are labeled by such ideal character orientations as craft, enterprise, career, and self.
I need hardly say much to you about the importance of authority. Only very few civilized persons are capable of existing without reliance on others or are even
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capable of coming to an independent opinion. You cannot exaggerate the intensity of man’s inner irresolution and craving for authority.
—Sigmund Freud
The best of all leaders is the one who helps people, so that eventually they don’t need him. Then comes the one they love and admire. Then comes the one they fear. The worst is the one who lets people push him around. Where there is no trust, people will act in bad faith. The best leader doesn’t say much, but what he says carries weight. When he is finished with his work, the people say, “It happened naturally.”
—Lao Tzu
There are four main ideal types of character orientation to work (see Table 1), each with positive and negative potentials.
Table 1. Ideal types of character orientation to work.
Type Positive Potential Negative Potential Craft independent and hard-working inflexible and suspicious Enterprise entrepreneurial and daring instrumental and uncaring Career professional and meritocratic bureaucratic and fearful Self experimental and self-developing escapist and rebellious
As Maccoby states: Craft is the traditional orientation to independent, inner-directed, skilled work.… Enterprise is at best an entrepreneurial, risk-taking orientation.… Career is the orientation of the technical expert, at best with professional standards and a meritocratic belief that measurable performance should be rewarded by promotion …. Self is the orientation of the new man in an age where abundance is taken as a right and technology provides limitless possibilities. The self-oriented person sees himself in a world of constant change and few roots, where he must create his identity and relationships and use himself as an instrument at work. At best he is experimental, tolerant, willing to be involved in an equitable enterprise that promises enriching experience and continued personal growth. At worst, the self- oriented are indeed rebellious, disloyal, centerless, and escapists into an unproductive inner world of fantasy.1 Maccoby names four main types of leaders:
1. Administrators: traditional expert engineer, accountant, lawyer/craftsman
2. Strongmen: distrust to be overcome by bearing down: “jungle fighter”
1 Preface of Michael Maccoby, Leader (New York: Ballantine, 1981).
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3. Gamesmen: risk-taking, innovative, adaptable, inspiring in competition
4. Developers: new products, develop people, participative The new social character is evolving most rapidly in the affluent, technically educated,
large urban populations here and in the other industrial democracies as well. Like all social characters, it contains both negative and positive tendencies. It is a social character more oriented to self than to craft, enterprise, or career.
Characteristics of the new leader are: intelligence, ambition, willfulness, optimism, and persuasiveness. He or she is influenced by religious and political thought, an able competitor, critical of traditional authority, and willing to take risks. Most importantly, a new leader possesses the following qualities:
1. a caring, respectful, and responsible attitude
2. flexibility about people and organizational structure
3. a participative approach to management: willingness to share power
John Gardner Gardner, John. On Leadership. New York: Free Press, 1990. John Gardner is a widely-known and well-respected essayist and author on the topic of leadership. In this book, he explores the leadership challenges in large organizations, in political arenas, and in government—and the challenges of integrating them all. He posits a series of leadership attributes drawn from other researchers as essential to good leadership:
1. physical vitality and stamina
2. intelligence and judgment in action
3. willingness (eagerness) to accept responsibilities
4. task competence
5. understanding of followers/constituents and their needs
6. skill in dealing with people
7. need to achieve
8. capacity to motivate
9. courage, resolution, and steadiness
10. capacity to win and hold trust
11. capacity to manage, decide, and set priorities
12. confidence
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13. ascendance, dominance, and assertiveness
14. adaptability and flexibility of approach
Jim Collins Collins, Jim. “Level Five Leadership.” Harvard Business Review (December 2000). Coauthor of the best-selling book Built to Last, Collins describes his findings about the kind of leadership that has taken mediocre companies to greatness. In the results of a five-year study of 1,500 companies on the NYSE, Good to Great (New York: HarperCollins, 2001), Collins found that only 11 companies in 30 years made this jump from average to extraordinary and that all their leaders had two traits in common: a self-effacing humility and a dogged persistence, that he called, “Humility + Will.” He argues that Level One is the highly capable individual; Level Two is contributing team members; Level Three is the competent manager; Level Four is the effective leader; and Level Five is the executive who builds enduring greatness through a paradoxical combination of personal humility and professional will. Behavioral Approach
The behavioral approach first rose to prominence in the 1950s as researchers grew frustrated with the trait approach. They switched their emphasis to observations of what effective and ineffective leaders actually do on the job.
Mintzberg’s 10 managerial roles Mintzberg, Henry. The Nature of Managerial Work. New York: HarperCollins College
Division, 1973. Mintzberg’s interviews and observations of five chief executives included:
1. figurehead role
2. leader role: integrating the organization, motivating
3. liaison role
4. monitor role
5. disseminator role
6. spokesman role
7. entrepreneur role
8. disturbance handler role
9. resource allocator role
10. negotiator role
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Kotter’s leadership factor Kotter, John. The Leadership Factor. New York: The Free Press, 1988. (data from 900
senior executives in 100 American corporations); and Kotter, John. “What Leaders Really Do.” Harvard Business Review, (May–June 1990). See also The General Managers and Power and Influence by the same author. According to Kotter:
Leadership is defined as the process of moving a group (or groups) in some direction through mostly noncoercive means. Effective leadership is defined as leadership that produces movement in the long-term best interest of the group(s). Using Lee Iacocca as an example, Kotter outlines this pattern:
1. development of a bold, new vision
2. an intelligent (i.e., workable) strategy for implementing the vision
3. eliciting the cooperation and teamwork from a large network of essential people
4. relentless work to keep key people in the network motivated toward the vision Great vision emerges when a powerful mind, working long and hard on massive amounts of information, is able to see (or recognize in suggestions from others) interesting patterns and new possibilities. Effective senior management:
1. industry and organizational knowledge
2. relationships in the firm and the industry
3. reputation and track record
4. abilities and skills (keen mind, interpersonal skills)
5. personal values (integrity)
6. motivation (high energy level, strong drive to lead)
A surprisingly large number of the items (on the skill list) are developed on the job as a part of one’s posteducational career. Almost all the knowledge, relationship, and background requirements fit this generalization. Management is different from leadership. Management is about coping with complexity,
and leadership is about coping with change. Both are invaluable to the well-being of an organization. Management and leadership are both focused on providing three crucial functions, but they accomplish these tasks in different ways, as outlined in Table 2.
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Table 2. Functions of management and leadership.
Function Management Leadership Deciding what needs to be done
Planning and budgeting (short-term focus)
Setting a direction (long-term focus; communicating a vision)
Creating networks of people and relationships to accomplish the agenda
Organizing and staffing Aligning people (by communicating with them)
Ensuring that the job gets done
Control mechanisms (compare results to plan and make corrections)
Motivating people (appeal to human needs like self-esteem and recognition)
Companies with weak leadership show these characteristics:
1. Managers leave frustrated with neglect and/or abuse.
2. Middle management jobs are mostly fire-fighting.
3. Managers who want to be leaders are stymied by bureaucracy.
4. Without depth of management, people are promoted into positions they weren’t prepared for.
5. Managers cannot be moved across organizational boundaries.
6. Managers are rarely coached or mentored.
7. Managers have one chance only at promotion, regardless of whether that makes sense. In short, such companies manage by responding to short-term financial imperatives, and their efforts are often hampered by parochial internal politics.
Companies with strong leadership tend to provide in these areas:
1. sophisticated recruiting efforts
2. attractive work environment
3. challenging opportunities
4. early identification
5. planned development
Therefore, Kotter suggests that new leaders take a different approach:
1. abandon the notion of professional leadership
2. think of leadership with a small “l,” something we all must do better
3. think more carefully about managerial careers
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4. realize that human resource professionals are not professionals but rather advisors to the line management
5. think about how to manage global businesses and develop that talent
6. realize that the sources of competitive advantage have changed from the past Stewart’s three-part theory of management
Stewart, R. Managers and Their Jobs. London: MacMillan, 1967; Stewart, R. Contrasts
in Management. Maidenhead, England: McGraw-Hill, 1976; and Stewart, R. Choices for the Manager: A Guide to Understanding Managerial Work. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1982.
Stewart outlines three forces which affect individual managerial roles to varying degrees,
helping to shape the nature of those jobs:
1. Demands: Duties and responsibilities imposed by others in positions of power that the manager must uphold (e.g., standards, deadlines, bureaucratic procedures).
2. Constraints: Elements in the organizational and external environment that limit the manager’s options (e.g., policies, regulations, and labor laws, as well as the limited funds, supplies, and personnel available for a task).
3. Choices: What a manager may do, at his or her own discretion (e.g., objectives for the business unit being managed, prioritizing of tasks, and strategy).
The relative influences of these three forces affect managerial behavior and can make one
management position very different from another. Kouzes and Posner’s leadership challenge
Kouzes, James and Barry Posner. The Leadership Challenge. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1987. In a three-year study of about 1,500 managers, Kouzes and Posner inferred five practices and 10 behavioral commitments that characterized effective leaders. They developed a self- assessment and leadership assessment tool, the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI), which has become widely used in many schools and businesses, to measure these five practices and 10 dimensions:
1. Challenging the process
a. search for opportunities
b. experiment and take risks
2. Inspiring a shared vision
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a. envision the future
b. enlist others
3. Enabling others to act
a. foster collaboration
b. strengthen others
4. Modeling the way
a. set the example
b. plan small wins
5. Encouraging the heart
a. recognize individual contributions
b. celebrate accomplishments
Results-focused leadership
Ulrich, Dave, Jack Zenger, and Norm Smallwood. Results-Based Leadership. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1999.
Ulrich and his co-authors assert that, whatever a person’s characteristics might be, in the end, that person must focus on results—the outcomes of an organization. They point out that at least four entities perceive results from an organization: employees, organizational capabilities, customers, and investors. A results-oriented leader will pay attention to all entities. Ulrich and his coauthors offer 14 suggestions to help that person become a more results-oriented leader:
1. Begin with an absolute focus on results.
2. Take complete and personal responsibility for your groups’ results.
3. Clearly and specifically communicate expectations and targets to the people in your group.
4. Determine what you need to do personally to improve your results.
5. Use results as the litmus test for continuing or implementing leadership practice.
6. Engage in developmental activities and opportunities that will help you produce better results.
7. Know and use every group member’s capabilities to the fullest and provide everyone with appropriate developmental opportunities.
8. Experiment and innovate in every realm under your influence, looking constantly for new ways to improve performance.
9. Measure the right standards and increase the rigor with which you measure them.
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10. Constantly take action; results won’t improve without it.
11. Increase the pace or tempo of your group.
12. Seek feedback from others in the organization about ways you and your group can improve your outcomes.
13. Ensure that your subordinates and colleagues perceive that your motivation for being a leader is the achievement of positive results, not personal or political gain.
14. Model the methods ands strive for the results you want your group to use and attain. Power and Influence Approach
This school of research studies the influence processes at work between leaders and other individuals. In general, the aim is to gain insight into leadership effectiveness by studying the power possessed by a leader, as well as the way that power is wielded.
“The Two Faces of Power” McClelland, David. “The Two Faces of Power.” Journal of International Affairs 24, no. 1
(1970): 29–47.
1. Dominating Power: Seeks to subjugate others by keeping them weak and dependent on the leader.
2. Empowering Power: Seeks to enable the weak. Power is exercised cautiously; the aim is to build commitment to the organization and its ideals rather than to oneself.
Winter’s theory of leadership
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard Business School, circa 1978.
Leadership is a function of the ability of the leader to empower the followers: to make
them feel that they are more capable, more powerful and more able than they were.
If you think about it, people love others not for who they are, but for how they make us feel. We willingly follow others for much the same reason. It makes us feel good to do so. Now, we also follow platoon sergeants, self-centered geniuses, demanding spouses, bosses of various persuasions, and others for a variety of reasons as well.
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But none of those reasons involves that person’s leadership qualities. In order to willingly accept the direction of another individual, it must feel good to do so. This business of making another person feel good in the unspectacular course of his daily comings and goings is, in my view, the very essence of leadership.
—Irwin Federman, quoted in Bennis and Nanus, Leaders The West Point Way of Leadership Donnithorne, Larry. The West Point Way of Leadership. New York: Currency/
Doubleday, 1993. Colonel Donnithorne describes the leadership principles that West Point cadets are taught each year at the Academy. These lessons, taken sequentially and carefully, comprise the West Point way of leadership. Donnithorne’s lessons are listed in Table 3.
Table 3. West Point’s leadership principles.
First Year Second Year Third Year Fourth Year Followership is job one
Positioning the leader inside the group/team
Acquiring self reliance to lead leaders
Executive leadership
Finding courage in fear
Just and unjust leadership
Pushing character to the extreme
Serving as the organization’s eyes and ears
Honor is the language we speak
Face-to-face leadership
Leading leaders
Being a team member
Social exchange theory Hollander, E. P. “Conformity, Status, and Idiosyncrasy Credit.” Psychological Review 65
(1958): 117–27; Hollander, E. P. “Leadership and Social Exchange Processes.” in. Gergen, K, M. S. Greenberg, and R. H. Willis (Ed.). Social Exchange: Advances in Theory and Research. New York: Winston-John Wiley; 1979; and Jacobs, T. O. Leadership and Exchange in Formal Organizations. Alexandria, Virginia: Human Resources Research Organization, 1970.
Social exchange exists between a leader and the other members of the group: the leader champions a course of action, and the group affords the leader a greater (or lesser) degree of status and influence based on the perceived success (or failure) of the plan. When an innovative plan succeeds, the leader wins not only greater power and influence but also idiosyncrasy credits—the allowance of greater latitude to deviate from normal
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procedures in the future. In other words, the group becomes more receptive to radical-sounding proposals, thanks to the trust that the former success has engendered. When the leader’s plan fails, social exchange theory predicts that the leader will experience a loss of status and influence. The loss will be greater if the failure appears to be due to poor judgment, rather than factors beyond the leader’s control (e.g., if the leader is thought to have pursued selfish motives, if the plan was especially divergent from group norms, or if the leader had a particularly high degree of status beforehand). Strategic contingencies theory
Hickson, D. J. et al. “A Strategic Contingencies Theory of Intra-Organizational Power.”
Administrative Science Quarterly 16 (1971): 216–29. The strategic contingencies theory looks at organizational subunits and their relative abilities to influence strategic decisions for the organization as a whole. In other words, it clarifies what makes some subunits more powerful than others. The theory names three factors:
1. Expertise in dealing with important problems. This expertise is especially valuable when the problem is critical (essential for the survival and well-being of the organization) and when the subunits are highly interdependent.
2. The subunit’s centrality in the workflow of the organization. This factor is particularly important if the subunits are not highly interdependent.
3. The extent to which the expertise of the subunit is unique and not easily substitutable. Situational Approach The situational approach pays special attention to contextual factors: the nature of the work performed by the leader’s unit, the individual characteristics of the followers, or the nature of the external environment. How, it asks, does the larger situation affect the leadership task? Hersey and Blanchard’s situational theory of leadership
Hersey, P., and K. H. Blanchard. Management of Organizational Behavior. Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1977.
This is an extension of the leadership theories presented by Blake and Mouton (in the managerial grid approach) and Reddin’s 3-D management style
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