Compare and Contrast Please explain what similarities and differences can you identify from this weeks assigned Journal article ? Theakou and Kriemad
Week 2 Assignment – Compare and Contrast
Complete a 2-page description, not including the APA cover page or reference page. Please explain what similarities and differences can you identify from this week’s assigned Journal article – Theakou and Kriemadis (2007 )and the SWOT analysis presented in section 4.12 of the course textbook?. The paper must follow all APA guidelines. The cover page and reference page are not counted as part of the 2-page count.
Thanos Kriemadis, Elena Theakou
Department of Sport Management, University of Peloponnese
Abstract
Strategic planning is widely used by organisations, as it is an integral part of strategy. The present study tackles the topic of strategic planning as it is developed by public and non-profit organizations and provides an extensive review of literature in the area of the development and role of strate- gic planning within strategic management and the way it is adopted by public and non-profit organizations. For the pur- poses of this paper, five models of strategic planning have been discussed with the belief that they describe better the models that can be approached and developed by public and non-profit organizations in the area of sport. This article aims at partly contributing to the theoretical discussion con- cerning the ability of organizations to integrate and deploy strategic planning. For this study we examined a non-profit sport organization in British Columbia, Canada. The authors propose that public and non-profit sport organizations should develop their own model of strategic planning, which may help them to think and act strategically.
Key Words: strategic planning models, strategic management, public and non-profit sport organizations.
XXOPHΓIA OPHΓIA – CHOREGIAHOREGIASport Management International Journal
SMIJ – VOL. 3, Number 2, 2007
Scientific Forum in Sport Management
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One of the most common sets of activities in the management is planning. In order to determine where the organization is going, whether it operates in the private or in the public sector, the organization needs to know exactly where it stands, then determines where it wants to go and how it will get there. Planning is an intelligent preparation for action. The planning process is differentiated from other pre-decision activities, in that it is systematic, de- liberate and continuous (Glaister and Falshaw, 1999). Strategic planning is widely used by organisations at international level, as it is an integral part of strategy. Strategic Planning is the formal consideration of an organization's fu- ture course. All strategic planning deals with at least one of three key ques- tions (Bradford and Duncan, 2000): 1) What we do? 2) For whom do we do it? 3) How do we excel?
The maturity of an academic discipline is often judged by the extent to which its theories and techniques are employed in everyday practice. It is pos- sible to benchmark the maturity of strategic management by exploring the ex- tent to which its theories, frameworks and tools are employed by organizations in their strategic thinking and planning (Stonehouse and Pemberton, 2002). In this paper, attention is focused on strategic planning models in public and non- profit sport organizations. The primary objective of this study is to explore the extent to which the models of strategic planning are employed by public and non-profit organizations within the sport sector and such an organization was selected for examination. In addition, this permits further discussion of whether public and non-profit sport organizations do indeed think and act strategically.
Strategic Planning in Public and Non-Profit Sector Organizations
Strategic Planning is a means to an end, a method used to position an or- ganization, through prioritizing its use of resources according to identified goals, in an effort to guide its direction and development over a period of time (Bryson, 1995). Although the notion of strategy has its origins in the military arena, strategic planning in recent years has been primarily focused on pri- vate sector organizations and much of the theory assumes that those in ex- ecutive control of an organization have the freedom to determine its direction. Current theories also appear to assume that the operating environment is pre- dominantly competitive and, implicitly, that a profit motive will be the driving force behind the planning requirement.
In public sector organizations, however, those in executive positions often have their powers constrained by statute and regulation which predetermine, to various degrees, not only the very purpose of the organization but also their levels of freedom to diversify or to reduce, for example, a loss-making service (Duncan, 1990). The primary financial driver in these organizations is not profit, but to maximize output within a given budget (some organizations
28 SMIJ – VOL. 3, Number 2, 2007
currently having to try to do both) and, while elements of competition do ex- ist, it is much more common to think of comparators rather than competitors. Much of the planning literature, currently being published, addresses the ne- cessity of planning in the profit and non-profit sectors. Strategic thought and action have become increasingly important and have been adopted by public and non-profit planners to enable them to successfully adapt to the future (Kriemadis, 1997; Laycock, 1990; Nelson, 1990; Wilson, 1990). According to Bryson (1995) strategic planning, can help public and nonprofit organizations anticipate and respond effectively to their dramatically changing environments.
In their efforts to provide increased value for money and to genuinely im- prove their outputs, public and non-profit sector organizations have been in- creasingly turning to strategic planning systems and models. While it is ac- knowledged that models rarely actually fit organizations without some adaptation, many in the public and non-profit sector have found that certain key dimensions of the existing strategic models have not existed within their organizations. In supporting that approach to strategic development within the public and non-profit sector, Wilkinson and Monkhouse (1994) goes one step further and suggest that the actual design models of the strategic process should also reflect the reality of public and non-profit sector organizations. It is suggested that any model of strategy development used in public and non- profit sector organizations should acknowledge the key differences that exist in that sector.
Strategic Planning Models
The following models provide a range of alternatives from which organiza- tions might select an approach and begin to develop their own strategic plan- ning process (McNamara, 2000). An organization might choose to integrate the models, e.g., using a scenario model to creatively identify strategic issues and goals, and then an issue-based model to carefully strategize to address the issues and reach the goals.
1st Model – Basic Strategic Planning
This very basic process is typically followed by organizations that are ex- tremely small, busy, and have not done much strategic planning before. The process might be implemented in the first year of the non-profit organization to get a sense of how planning is conducted, and then embellished in later years with more planning phases and activities to ensure well-rounded direc- tion for the non-profit. Planning is usually carried out by top-level manage- ment. The basic strategic planning process includes:
STRATEGIC PLANNING MODELS 29
1. Identify the purpose (mission statement) – This is the statement(s) that describes why the organization exists, i.e., its basic purpose. The statements will change somewhat over the years.
2. Select the goals the organization must reach if it is to accomplish its mission – Goals are general statements about what the organization needs to accomplish to meet its purpose or mission, and address major issues facing the organization.
3. Identify specific approaches or strategies that must be implemented to reach each goal – The strategies are often what change the most as the or- ganization eventually conducts more robust strategic planning, particularly by more closely examining the external and internal environments of the organi- zation.
4. Identify specific action plans to implement each strategy – These are the specific activities that each major function (for example, department, etc.) must undertake to ensure it’s effectively implementing each strategy. Objec- tives should be clearly worded to the extent that people can assess if the ob- jectives have been met or not.
5. Monitor and update the plan – Planners regularly reflect on the extent to which the goals are being met and whether action plans are being imple- mented. Perhaps the most important indicator of success of the organization is positive feedback from the organization’s customers.
2nd Model – Issue – Based (or Goal – Based) Planning
Organizations that begin with the «basic» planning approach described above often evolve to using this more comprehensive and more effective type of planning. The following depicts a rather straightforward view of this type of planning process, but an organization may not do all of the following activities every year.
1. External/internal assessment to identify «SWOT» (Strengths, Weak- nesses, Opportunities, Threats).
2. Strategic analysis to identify and prioritize major issues/goals. 3. Design major strategies (or programs) to address issues/goals. 4. Design/update vision, mission and values(some organizations may do
this first in planning). 5. Establish action plans (objectives, resource needs, roles and responsi-
bilities for implementation). 6. Record issues, goals, strategies/programs, updated mission and vision,
and action plans in a Strategic Plan document, and attach SWOT, etc. 7. Develop the yearly Operating Plan document (from year one of the
multi-year strategic plan).
30 SMIJ – VOL. 3, Number 2, 2007
8. Develop and authorize Budget for year one (allocation of funds needed to fund year one).
9. Conduct the organization’s year-one operations. 10. Monitor/review/evaluate/update Strategic Plan document.
3rd Model – Alignment Model
The overall purpose of the model is to ensure strong alignment among the organization’s mission and its resources to effectively operate the organiza- tion. This model is useful for organizations that need to fine-tune strategies or find out why they are not working. An organization might also choose this model if it is experiencing a large number of issues around internal efficien- cies. Overall steps include:
1. The planning group outlines the organization’s mission, programs, re- sources, and needed support.
2. Identify what’s working well and what needs adjustment. 3. Identify how these adjustments should be made. 4. Include the adjustments as strategies in the strategic plan.
4th Model – Scenario Planning
This approach might be used in conjunction with other models to ensure planners truly undertake strategic thinking. The model may be useful, partic- ularly in identifying strategic issues and goals.
1. Select several external forces and imagine related changes which might influence the organization, e.g., change in regulations, demographic changes, etc. Scanning the newspaper for key headlines often suggests potential changes that might effect the organization.
2. For each change in a force, discuss three different future organization- al scenarios (including best case, worst case, and OK/reasonable case) which might arise with the organization as a result of each change. Reviewing the worst-case scenario often provokes strong motivation to change the organi- zation.
3. Suggest what the organization might do, or potential strategies, in each of the three scenarios to respond to each change.
4. Planners soon detect common considerations or strategies that must be addressed to respond to possible external changes.
5. Select the most likely external changes to effect the organization, e.g., over the next three to five years, and identify the most reasonable strategies the organization can undertake to respond to the change.
STRATEGIC PLANNING MODELS 31
5th Model – «Organic» (or Self – Organizing) Planning
Traditional strategic planning processes are sometimes considered «mech- anistic» or «linear,» i.e., they’re rather general-to-specific or cause-and-effect in nature. For example, the processes often begin by conducting a broad as- sessment of the external and internal environments of the organization, con- ducting a strategic analysis («SWOT» analysis), narrowing down to identifying and prioritizing issues, and then developing specific strategies to address the specific issues.
Another view of planning is similar to the development of an organism, i.e., an «organic,» self-organizing process. Certain cultures, e.g., Native American Indians, might prefer unfolding and naturalistic «organic» planning processes more than the traditional mechanistic, linear processes. Self-organizing re- quires continual reference to common values, dialoguing around these values, and continued shared reflection around the systems current processes. Gen- eral steps include:
1. Clarify and articulate the organization’s cultural values. Use dialogue and story-boarding techniques.
2. Articulate the group’s vision for the organization. Use dialogue and sto- ry-boarding techniques.
3. On an ongoing basis, e.g., once every quarter, dialogue about what processes are needed to arrive at the vision and what the group is going to do now about those processes.
4. Continually remind yourself and others that this type of naturalistic planning is never really «over with,» and that, rather, the group needs to learn to conduct its own values clarification, dialogue/reflection, and process updates.
5. Be very, very patient. 6. Focus on learning and less on method. 7. Ask the group to reflect on how the organization will portray its strate-
gic plans to stakeholders, etc., who often expect the «mechanistic, linear» plan formats.
Strategic Planning in Sport Organizations: The Case of British Columbia Rugby Union
Rugby Canada (www.bcrugby.com) is the national governing body for the sport of rugby union in Canada. Rugby Canada is the administrative body for rugby union in Canada and every province also has its own union. The British Columbia Rugby Union (BCRU) is the administrative body for rugby union in British Columbia. The BCRU consists of nine sub-unions and 65 clubs. It was
32 SMIJ – VOL. 3, Number 2, 2007
originally organized in New Westminster around 1889 and the current head- quarters is on the west side of Vancouver. British Columbia is considered a hotspot for rugby in Canada. The BCRU is responsible for organizing the Canadian Direct Insurance Premier League, the provincial men's club cham- pionship. It also oversees provincial representative teams which compete for national championships organized by Rugby Union.
The vision of BCRU is:
• Rugby will flourish and be a sport of choice in British Columbia. • British Columbia Rugby will be recognized as one of the most profes-
sional and competitive provincial unions in the world.
The mission of BCRU is:
• Promote, grow, and manage the game of Rugby in British Columbia. • Ensure wide participation and the continuous development of excellence
in a safe and respectful environment.
The strategic plan of BCRU is prepared for the period 2007-2011 and will provide the direction, priorities and framework to take the organization from today to the future. The strategic planning process covers the entire spectrum of issues to the precise steps necessary for a smooth transition from current conditions to the challenges that lie ahead. However, strategic planning rarely flows smoothly from one step to the next. Fresh ideas at one meeting may change decisions made earlier. This should not be a source of frustration; rather, it reflects the necessary creative input of inventive team members. The general approach taken by BCRU (www.bcrugby.com) for the strategic plan- ning follows the model shown below:
Linking all the steps together integrates tying the results of the plan into performance measures (quantitative and qualitative). Perhaps more important, though, is the involvement of staff in the process, which assists in the align- ment with the business strategy, goals and objectives, and helps maximize communication and feedback.
In the old vertical organization model, management told employees what to do, when to do it and how much to do. Today, people work in functional and cross-functional teams, which suggest that the reward is for teamwork, rather than individual performance. Too often, executive management talks about val- ues but then «don't walk their talk». For example, some organizations say they value teamwork but continue to reward individual performance. It is the intent to align the Board, staff and other volunteers around a fresh strategy to take BC Rugby into the future. The BCRU strategic planning process is fol- lowing this general approach described above.
STRATEGIC PLANNING MODELS 33
This new strategic plan, entitled «Pathway to Success», provides the foun- dation upon which BCRU will develop its services and programs over the next five years to grow the Union. The strategic plan will outline new courses of action to ensure that the goals that emerge from strategic planning are met. These goals are:
• Growth – increase the number of rugby participants • Competitive Season – simplify, modernize and align rugby offerings • Safety – minimize incidences and exposure to injury. Realistic and methodical action plans, with a dedicated team to deliver, and
in accordance with the mission and vision of the British Columbia Rugby Union, will ensure it is on the «pathway to success».
Internal SWOT, Capabilities & Compefencies
Analysis Strategic Assessment & Issues
Data
Assumptions
Goals Objectives
Commitment
Implementation
Actions Plans Schedule Budget
Vision Direction for Future State
Mission
External Environmental Scan
Execution
34 SMIJ – VOL. 3, Number 2, 2007
Discussion and Recommendations
This study has considered the deployment of strategic planning models in public and non-profit organizations within the sport sector. The focus has been to examine the role of strategic planning in a sport organization, the BCRU, which is the governing body for the sport of rugby in the province of British Columbia, in Canada. In considering the range of alternatives from which sport organizations might select an approach and begin to develop their own strategic planning model, the article has sought to identify the integration of various strategic planning models.
There are a variety of perspectives, models and approaches used in strate- gic planning. The way that a strategic plan is developed depends on the na- ture of the organization's leadership, culture of the organization, complexity of the organization's environment, size of the organization, expertise of planners, etc (McNamara, 2000). As we have mentioned, there are a variety of strate- gic planning models, including «basic» strategic planning, goal-based, align- ment, scenario, and organic model.
However, in seeking to obtain a better fit between the models and the or- ganizations within the public sector, it is the models that must be adapted rather than twisting the reality of the actual organizations (Poister and Streib, 2005). BCRU developed its own model of strategic planning, by selecting mostly the «basic» strategic planning and the issue-based (or goal-based) planning models and modifying them depending on its processes and activi- ties.
Strategic planning for public and non-profit organizations is important and probably will become part of the standard repertoire of public and non-profit planners. It is important, of course, for planners to be very careful about how they engage in strategic planning, since every situation is at least somewhat different and since planning can be effective only if it is tailored to the spe- cific situation in which it is used (Ring and Perry, 1985). Since strategic plan- ning tends to fuse planning and decision making, it makes sense to think of decision makers as strategic planners and to think of strategic planners as fa- cilitators of decision making across levels and functions in organizations and communities (Taylor, 1984).
Strategic planning may help public and non-profit sport organizations to think and act strategically. There appears to be an ever increasing interest in this area, and further studies could prove to be beneficial. Further research should explore a number of theoretical and practical issues in order to ad- vance the knowledge and practice of strategic planning for public and non- profit organizations within the sport sector. In particular, more detailed strate- gic planning models should specify key situational factors governing their use (Checkoway, 1986).
STRATEGIC PLANNING MODELS 35
Conclusively, strategic planning is not a static product, which, once being set, stays as it is throughout the implementation of the strategy. It is a con- stantly evolving process, trying to follow the continual changes in the envi- ronment (Stopford, 2001). Sport organizations may develop their own model of strategic planning, often by selecting a model or a combination of models in accordance with their own needs.
References
Bradford, R.W. and Duncan, P.J. (2000). Simplified Strategic Planning, Chan- dler House Press
Bryson, J.M. (1995). Strategic Planning for Public and Nonprofit Organiza- tions: A Guide to Strengthening and Sustaining Organizational Achieve- ment, Rev. ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Bryson, J.M. (1988). A Strategic Planning Process for Public and Non-profit Organizations, Long Range Planning, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 73-81
Checkoway, B. (1986). Strategic Perspectives on Planning Practice, Lexing- ton Books, Lexington, MA
Duncan, H. (1990). Strategic planning theory today, Optimum, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 63-74
Glaister, K.W. and Falshaw, R. (1999). Strategic planning: still going strong?, Long Range Planning, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 107-116
Kriemadis, A. (1997). Strategic planning in higher education athletic depart- ments. The International Journal of Educational Management, 11(6), 238- 247
Laycock, D.K. (1990). Are you ready for strategic planning?, Non-profit World, Vol. 8, No. 5, pp. 25-27
McNamara, C. (2000). Field Guide to Nonprofit Strategic Planning and Facili- tation, Authenticity Consulting LLC, Minneapolis Minnesota
Nelson, R.S. (1990). Planning by a non-profit should be businesslike, Non- profit World, Vol. 8, No. 6, pp. 24-27
Nutt, P.C., and Backoff, R.W. (1992). Strategic Management of Public and Third Sector Organizations: A Handbook for Leaders, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Poister, T.H. and Streib, G. (2005). Elements of Strategic Planning and Man- agement in Municipal Government, Public Administration Review, Vol. 65, No. 1, pp. 45-56
Porter, M.E. (1980). Competitive Strategy, The Free Press, New York Ring, P.S. and Perry, J.L. (1985). Strategic management in public and private
organizations: implications and distinctive contexts and constraints, Acad- emy of Management Review, Vol. 10, pp. 276-286
36 SMIJ – VOL. 3, Number 2, 2007
Stonehouse, G. and Pemberton, J. (2002). Strategic planning in SMEs-some empirical findings, Management Decision, Vol. 40, No. 9, pp. 853-861
Stopford, J. (2001). Should strategy makers become dream weavers?, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 79, No. 1, pp. 165–169
Taylor, B. (1984). Strategic planning-which style do you need?, Long Range Planning, Vol. 17, pp. 51-62
Toft, G.S. (1989). Synoptic (One Best Way) Approaches of Strategic Man- agement, In Handbook of Strategic Management, edited by Jack Rabin, Gerald J. Miller
Wilkinson, G. and Monkhouse, E. (1994). Strategic Planning in Public Sector Organizations, Executive Development, MCB University Press, Vol. 7, No. 6, pp. 16-19
Wilson, P. (1990). Strategic planning in the public sector, Practising Manag- er, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 23-24
Wit, B. and Meyer, R. (1998). Strategy Process, Content, Context, an Inter- national Perspective, Second Edition, International Thomson Business Press
Address for correspondence: Thanos Kriemadis 3 Lyssandrou Str., Sparta, 23100 Greece e-mail: [email protected]
STRATEGIC PLANNING MODELS 37
,
Chapter 3: Evaluating the External Environment
Chapter 3: Evaluating the External Environment
3.1 Evaluating the External Environment
3.2 The Relationship between an Organization and Its Environment
3.3 Evaluating the General Environment
3.4 Evaluating the Industry
3.5 Mapping Strategic Groups
3.6 Conclusion
3.1 Evaluating the External Environment
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to understand and articulate answers to the following questions:
1. What is the general environment and why is it important to organizations?
2. What are the features of Porter’s five forces industry analysis?
3. What are strategic groups and how are they useful to evaluating the environment?
Subway Is on a Roll
As shown in the highlighted countries, Subway is well on its way to building a worldwide sandwich empire.
Wikimedia Commons – CC BY-SA 3.0.
Many observers were stunned in March 2011 when news broke that Subway had surpassed McDonald’s as the biggest restaurant chain in the world. At the time of the announcement, Subway had 33,749 units under its banner while McDonald’s had 32,737 (Kingsley, 2011). Despite its meteoric growth, many opportunities remained. In China, for example, Subway had fewer than two hundred stores. In contrast, China hosts more than 3,200 Kentucky Fried Chicken stores. Overall, Subway was on a roll, and this success seemed likely to continue.
How had Subway surpassed a global icon like McDonald’s? One key factor was Subway’s efforts to provide and promote healthy eating options. This emphasis took hold in the late 1990s when the American public became captivated by college student Jared Fogle. As a freshman at Indiana University in 1998, the 425 pound Fogle decided to try to lose weight by walking regularly and eating a diet consisting of Subway subs. Amazingly, Fogle dropped 245 pounds by February of 1999.
Subway executives knew that a great story had fallen into their laps. They decided to feature Fogle in Subway’s advertising and soon he was a well-known celebrity. In 2007, Fogle met with President Bush about nutrition and testified before the US Congress about the need for healthier snack options in schools. Today, Fogle is the face of Subway and
one of the few celebrities that are instantly recognizable based on his first name alone. Much like Beyoncé and Oprah, you can mention “Jared” to almost anyone in America and that person will know exactly of whom you are speaking. Subway’s line of Fresh Fit sandwiches is targeted at prospective Jareds who want to improve their diets.
Because American diets contain too much salt, which can cause high blood pressure, salt levels in restaurant food are attracting increased scrutiny. Subway responded to this issue in April 2011 when its outlets in the United States reduced the amount of salt in all its sandwiches by at least 15 percent without any alteration in taste. The Fresh Fit line of sandwiches received a more dramatic 28 percent reduction in salt. These changes were enacted after customers of Subway’s outlets in New Zealand and Australia embraced similar adjustments. Although the new sandwich recipes cost slightly more than the old ones, Subway plans to absorb these costs rather than raising their prices (Riley, 2011). This may be a wise strategy for retaining customers, who have become very price sensitive because of the ongoing uncertainty surrounding the American economy and the high unemployment.
References
Kingsley, P. 2011, March 9. How a sandwich franchise ousted McDonald’s. The Guardian. Retrieved from
http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2011/mar/09/subway-biggest -fast-food-chain.
Riley, C. 2011, April. Subway lowers salt in its sandwiches. CNNMoney. Retrieved from http://money.cnn.com/
2011/04/18/news/companies/subway_salt/index.htm.
69 Mastering Strategic Management
3.2 The Relationship between an Organization and Its Environment
Learning Objectives
1. Define the environment in the context of business.
2. Understand how an organization and its environment affect each other.
3. Learn the difference between the general environment and the industry.
What Is the Environment?
For any organization, the environment consists of the set of external conditions and forces that have the potential
to influence the organization. In the case of Subway, for example, the environment contains its customers, its
rivals such as McDonald’s and Kentucky Fried Chicken, social trends such as the shift in society toward healthier
eating, political entities such as the US Congress, and many additional conditions and forces.
It is useful to break the concept of the environment down into two components. The general environment
(or macroenvironment) includes overall trends and events in society such as social trends, technological trends,
demographics, and economic conditions. The industry (or competitive environment) consists of multiple
organizations that collectively compete with one another by providing similar goods, services, or both.
Every action that an organization takes, such as raising its prices or launching an advertising campaign, creates
some degree of changes in the world around it. Most organizations are limited to influencing their industry.
Subway’s move to cut salt in its sandwiches, for example, may lead other fast-food firms to revisit the amount of
salt contained in their products. A few organizations wield such power and influence that they can shape some
elements of the general environment. While most organizations simply react to major technological trends, for
example, the actions of firms such as Intel, Microsoft, and Apple help create these trends. Some aspects of the
general environment, such as demographics, simply must be taken as a given by all organizations. Overall, the
environment has a far greater influence on most organizations than most organizations have on the environment.
Why Does the Environment Matter?
Understanding the environment that surrounds a
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