Identify the issue. Provide the necessary background and/or important recent developments. Define key terms and concepts. Engage the reader and ex

IMMIGRATION REFORM 1

Immigration Reform

Satyika Rayamajhi

West Coast University

PHIL341: Critical Reasoning

Professor: Michael Cook

Date: May 8

IMMIGRATION REFORM 2

Abstract

The paper covers immigration reforms and the various aspect it brings to society. The

argument that supports immigration and the benefits it brings to society is outlined in the paper

also the counterarguments, the fallacies related to immigration, and the way people take these

fallacies about immigration. The bias that is related to the cultural and social difference between

natives and immigrants is also pointed out in the report. The rhetorical devices that are related to

immigration have been used by our leaders to help us understand immigration from a different

perspective.

IMMIGRATION REFORM 3

Introduction

Immigration possesses an ongoing debate where people are concerned if immigration is

beneficial or not to society. This paper will be examining the benefits and counterarguments

concerning immigration. Immigration can be beneficial in society if it is well accepted within the

different communities and ethnic groups in the country. These arguments about immigration

have led to the change in policies regarding immigration making it difficult to gain access to

certain countries. This is due to fear and the misunderstanding that is brought by people in

society. The fallacies related to immigration are the various factors that will be discussed in this

report.

Those in favor of immigration have the belief that immigration has enriched the culture

of the host nation or society and has provided numerous benefits to the overall country.

Immigration leads to cross-cultural integration this is through the increase of ethnic variety

within a society. The increase in diversity helps in increasing and improving the society as well

as improving learning in individuals (Richards, 2018). This also means there is an increase in

skill development, this is where there is a learning opportunity for people to interact and get to

understand the difference in how things are done in various cultures. This helps one adjust their

ways of operation to be able to fit in the society. Immigration can be beneficial because there

will be an improvement in tax payment within the country that will lead to an increase in wages

increase.

Arguments and Counterarguments

Being controversial topic immigration has a conflicting opinions from various people

across the global scale. People believe that immigration takes away or manipulates the original

IMMIGRATION REFORM 4

culture and tradition of a given society this is where the introduction of new ways and behaviors

causes an unwanted change in the society that many people do not like. The perspective is that

immigration brings a bad influence on society hence, traditions are forgotten and people follow

new ways of life (Ma & Hofmann, 2019). Traditions have changed in marriage, technology, and

many other aspects related to the mode of living in society. They argue that various countries

especially the state have cultures that hurt the society that causes a change in behavior within the

society. Some say that immigration is the root of crime where they equate the immigrants to

having brought terrorism into the county.

The argument is based on immigrants posing a unique threat due to terrorist attacks.

Terrorism is not the modern means of war various cases of bombing and terrorism attacks have

been reported in the early century, most committed by immigrants and socialists. Today attacks

from terrorism and death committed by immigrants are greater than in the past (Ma & Hofmann,

2019). Overall immigration is not correlated with terrorism and the risk of being killed by a

foreign-born terrorist is minimal. An example is an annual chance of being killed in a terror

attack that has been planned by a foreigner is about one in a million. Almost 98 percent of

people murdered by an immigrant on US soil were murdered and most of these attackers did not

enter the country through immigrant visas instead they used tourism or student visas to gain

passage into the country.

Evaluation of Critical Thinking

Cognitive bias is divided into various categories. Ingroup bias is related to the miss

understanding and the lack of the ability to speak fluent English which makes them separated

from the rest of the group (Gönültaş & Mulvey, 2020). These individuals are tagged as the out-

group who are the immigrants as opposed to the in-group who are the native of the host country.

IMMIGRATION REFORM 5

The group that appears to be less familiar with the culture and the lack of assimilation into

American culture makes them be taken as the out-group.

Cognitive bias is based on the ability to integrate and find your way into the culture of the

society that one is associated with. Backfire is another form of confirmation bias where one is

too defensive in their opinions and strives to defend regardless of the changes and ideological

mix that surrounds the concept (Gönültaş & Mulvey, 2020). Challenging information causes a

threat to the learner's sense of identity which makes it harder to understand or try to process the

new information that is being relayed to an individual.

The fallacies that are related to immigration include; the immigrants are required to do

the jobs that the natives will not do. This is taken as the native workers will not be able to do the

hard work or the difficult work. That this kind of work is reserved for immigrant employees who

come to seek work in their native countries (Kurajian, 2018). These jobs are event distributed

regardless of your status on immigration the native will work on construction jobs while the

immigrants can also work in offices and perform executive work. These kinds of fallacies are

misleading society causing bias among the citizens. For instance, in West Virginia where

immigrants the same job description is performed by the American workers.

Another fallacy that is related to immigration is that low-skilled immigrants were a

benefit in the past they must be beneficial in this current error. The argument is related to

technology and the political changes that have occurred in the past bringing changes to society.

Technology has taken over and has made work easier by taking care of the heavy work. Slavery

was practiced in the past and in current times rules and policies regarding labor have changed.

These fallacies should not be misleading individuals anymore.

IMMIGRATION REFORM 6

Barack Obama used rhetorical devices such as water and storm to illustrate the process of

immigration is a continuous factor in life and it won’t be reduced or changed any time soon

(Kjeldsen, 2019). Water in his speech represents the young generation that will be coming in for

learning opportunities to be able to diversify and explore the various opportunities that are

available during their learning process. Immigration is a continuous process that will keep

happening. It is our responsibility to make the best of it.

Conclusion

The research explores the various immigration reforms and the misunderstandings that it

brings to the people. Immigration is an important factor in a country since it brings more

advantages than demerits to the society and economy in general. Diversity is key to the

development and growth of a nation. This could be through trading, learning, or supporting

others during difficult times. Learn to support one another and coordinate to ensure we work as a

team to overcome challenges that we face in our daily encounters. Immigration brings different

opportunities that need to be taken to ensure we are successful in all sectors of life.

IMMIGRATION REFORM 7

References

Gönültaş, S., & Mulvey, K. L. (2020). The Role of Immigration Background, Intergroup

Processes, and Social‐Cognitive Skills in Bystanders’ Responses to Bias‐Based Bullying

Toward Immigrants During Adolescence. Child Development.

https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13476

Kjeldsen, J. E. (2019). Royal Interventions in the Public Discourse on Immigration: Rhetorical

Topoi on Immigration in the New Year’s Speeches of the Scandinavian Monarchs.

Javnost – the Public, 26(2), 225–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/13183222.2019.1587702

Kurajian, O. A. (2018). Debunking the Narratives of Inclusion: Immigration Policy in Quebec,

Canada, and the United States in the Age of Trump. Undergraduate Review, 14(2), 68–

75. https://vc.bridgew.edu/undergrad_rev/vol14/iss2/11/

Ma, G., & Hofmann, E. T. (2019). Immigration and environment in the U.S.: A spatial study of

air quality. The Social Science Journal, 56(1), 94–106.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2018.08.007

Richards, T. J. (2018). Immigration Reform and Farm Labor Markets. American Journal of

Agricultural Economics, 100(4), 1050–1071. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aay027

moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd i 12/10/19 01:23 PM

Thirteenth Edition

Brooke Noel Moore Richard Parker California State University, Chico

with help in Chapter 12 from Nina Rosenstand and Anita Silvers

Critical Thinking

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moo7069X_fm_ISE.indd ii 12/24/19 06:04 PM

CRITICAL THINKING

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2021 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2017, 2015, and 2012. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 24 23 22 21 20

ISBN 978-1-260-57069-4 MHID 1-260-57069-X

Cover Image: McGraw-Hill

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

mheducation.com/highered

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moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd iii 12/10/19 01:23 PM

Chapter 1 Driving Blindfolded 1

Chapter 2 Two Kinds of Reasoning 35

Chapter 3 Clear Thinking, Critical Thinking, and Clear Writing 73

Chapter 4 Credibility 102

Chapter 5 Rhetoric, the Art of Persuasion 141

Chapter 6 Relevance (Red Herring) Fallacies 185

Chapter 7 Induction Fallacies 207

Chapter 8 Formal Fallacies and Fallacies of Language 233

Chapter 9 Deductive Arguments I: Categorical Logic 257

Chapter 10 Deductive Arguments II: Truth-Functional Logic 305

Chapter 11 Inductive Reasoning 362

Chapter 12 Moral, Legal, and Aesthetic Reasoning 420

Brief Contents

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Contents

Preface xviii Changes to the 13th Edition  xix Acknowledgments xxi About the Authors xxiv

Chapter 1 Driving Blindfolded 1 Beliefs and Claims 4

Objective Claims and Subjective Judgments 4

Fact and Opinion 6

Relativism 7

Moral Subjectivism 7

Issues 7

Arguments 8

Cognitive Biases 15

Truth and Knowledge 21

What Critical Thinking Can and Can’t Do 22

A Word About the Exercises 22

Recap 23

Additional Exercises 24

Answers and Tips 33

Chapter 2 Two Kinds of Reasoning 35 Arguments: General Features 35

Conclusions Used as Premises 36

Unstated Premises and Conclusions 36

Two Kinds of Arguments 37

Deductive Arguments 37

Inductive Arguments 38

Beyond a Reasonable Doubt 40

Two Kinds of Deductive Arguments 40

Four Kinds of Inductive Arguments 41

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vi CONTENTS

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Telling the Difference Between Deductive and Inductive Arguments 42

Deduction, Induction, and Unstated Premises 44

Balance of Considerations 46

Not Premises, Conclusions, or Arguments 46

Selfies (and Other Pictures) 46

If . . . Then . . . Sentences 47

Lists of Facts 47

“A because B” 48

Ethos, Pathos, and Logos 48

Techniques for Understanding Arguments 53

Clarifying an Argument’s Structure 54

Distinguishing Arguments from Window Dressing 56

Evaluating Arguments 57

Recap 57

Additional Exercises 58

Answers and Tips 68

Chapter 3 Clear Thinking, Critical Thinking, and Clear Writing 73

Vagueness 74

Ambiguity 76

Semantic Ambiguity 77

Grouping Ambiguity 77

Syntactic Ambiguity 77

Generality 79

Defining Terms 84

Purposes of Definitions 84

Kinds of Definitions 85

Tips on Definitions 85

Writing Argumentative Essays 87

Good Writing Practices 89

Essay Types to Avoid 89

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CONTENTS vii

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Persuasive Writing 90

Writing in a Diverse Society 91

Recap 92

Additional Exercises 92

Answers and Tips 100

Chapter 4 Credibility 102 The Believability of Claims 103

Does the Claim Conflict with Personal Observation? 104

Does the Claim Conflict with Our Background Information? 107

Might the Claim Reinforce Our Biases? 108

The Credibility of Sources 111

Interested Parties 111

Physical and Other Characteristics 112

Expertise 113

The News 118

Mainstream News Media 118

Advertising 126

Three Kinds of Ads 126

Recap 129

Additional Exercises 130

Answers and Tips 139

Chapter 5 Rhetoric, the Art of Persuasion 141 Rhetorical Force 142

Rhetorical Devices I 143

Euphemisms and Dysphemisms 143

Weaselers 144

Downplayers 144

Rhetorical Devices II 146

Stereotypes 147

Innuendo 148

Loaded Questions 149

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viii CONTENTS

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Rhetorical Devices III 150

Ridicule/Sarcasm 150

Hyperbole 151

Rhetorical Devices IV 151

Rhetorical Definitions and Rhetorical Explanations 152

Rhetorical Analogies and Misleading Comparisons 153

Proof Surrogates and Repetition 157

Proof Surrogates 157

Repetition 157

Persuasion Through Visual Imagery 161

The Extreme Rhetoric of Demagoguery 162

Recap 166

Additional Exercises 167

Answers and Tips 183

Chapter 6 Relevance (Red Herring) Fallacies 185 Argumentum Ad Hominem 186

Poisoning the Well 187

Guilt by Association 187

Genetic Fallacy 187

Straw Man 188

False Dilemma (Ignoring Other Alternatives) 189

The Perfectionist Fallacy 190

The Line-Drawing Fallacy 190

Misplacing the Burden of Proof 191

Begging the Question (Assuming What You Are Trying to Prove) 193

Appeal to Emotion 194

Argument from Outrage 194

Scare Tactics 195

Appeal to Pity 196

Other Appeals to Emotion 197

Irrelevant Conclusion 198

Recap 200

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Exercises 200

Answers and Tips 206

Chapter 7 Induction Fallacies 207 Generalizations 207

Generalizing from Too Few Cases (Hasty Generalization) 208

Generalizing from Exceptional Cases 210

Accident 211

Weak Analogy 212

Mistaken Appeal to Authority 213

Mistaken Appeal to Popularity (Mistaken Appeal to Common Belief) 214

Mistaken Appeal to Common Practice 215

Bandwagon Fallacy 216

Fallacies Related to Cause and Effect 217

Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc 217

Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc 221

Slippery Slope 223

Untestable Explanation 224

Line-Drawing Again 225

Recap 225

Exercises 225

Answers and Tips 232

Chapter 8 Formal Fallacies and Fallacies of Language 233

Three Formal Fallacies: Affirming the Consequent, Denying the Antecedent, and Undistributed Middle 233

Affirming the Consequent 233

Denying the Antecedent 234

The Undistributed Middle 235

The Fallacies of Equivocation and Amphiboly 237

The Fallacies of Composition and Division 239

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x CONTENTS

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Confusing Explanations with Excuses 240

Confusing Contraries and Contradictories 242

Consistency and Inconsistency 244

Miscalculating Probabilities 244

Incorrectly Combining the Probability of Independent Events 245

Gambler’s Fallacy 246

Overlooking Prior Probabilities 247

Faulty Inductive Conversion 247

Recap 249

Additional Exercises 250

Answers and Tips 256

Chapter 9 Deductive Arguments I: Categorical Logic 257 Categorical Claims 259

Venn Diagrams 260

Translation into Standard Form (Introduction) 261

Translating Claims in Which the Word “Only” or the Phrase “The Only” Occurs 262

Translating Claims About Times and Places 263

Translating Claims About Specific Individuals 264

Translating Claims that Use Mass Nouns 265

The Square of Opposition 268

Existential Assumption and the Square of Opposition 268

Inferences Across the Square 268

Three Categorical Relations 269

Conversion 269

Obversion 270

Contraposition 270

Categorical Syllogisms 278

The Venn Diagram Method of Testing for Validity 279

Existential Assumption in Categorical Syllogisms 282

Categorical Syllogisms with Unstated Premises 284

Real-Life Syllogisms 285

The Rules Method of Testing for Validity 289

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CONTENTS xi

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Recap 291

Additional Exercises 291

Answers and Tips 301

Chapter 10 Deductive Arguments II: Truth-Functional Logic 305

Truth Tables and Logical Symbols 306

Claim Variables 306

Truth Tables 306

Symbolizing Compound Claims 312

“If” and “Only If” 312

Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 314

“Unless” 316

“Either . . . Or” 316

Truth-Functional Argument Patterns (Brief Version) 318

Three Common Valid Argument Patterns 319

Three Mistakes: Invalid Argument Forms 322

Truth-Functional Arguments (Full Version) 325

The Truth-Table Method 326

The Short Truth-Table Method 328

Deductions 334

Group I Rules: Elementary Valid Argument Patterns 334

Group II Rules: Truth-Functional Equivalences 339

Conditional Proof 347

Recap 350

Additional Exercises 351

Answers and Tips 358

Chapter 11 Inductive Reasoning 362 Argument from Analogy 362

Evaluation of Arguments from Analogy 363

Three Arguments from Analogy 365

Other Uses of Analogy 366

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xii CONTENTS

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Generalizing from a Sample 371

Evaluation of Arguments That Generalize from a Sample 372

Three Arguments That Generalize from a Sample 372

Scientific Generalizing from a Sample 373

De-generalizing (Reverse Generalizing; the Statistical Syllogism) 375

Causal Statements and Their Support 382

Forming Causal Hypotheses 382

Weighing Evidence 384

Confirming Causal Hypotheses 395

Inference to the Best Explanation 399

Reasoning from Cause to Effect 401

Calculating Statistical Probabilities 402

Joint Occurrence of Independent Events 402

Alternative Occurrences 403

Expectation Value 403

Calculating Conditional Probabilities 404

Causation in the Law 406

Recap 407

Additional Exercises 408

Answers and Tips 416

Chapter 12 Moral, Legal, and Aesthetic Reasoning 420 Value Judgments 421

Moral Versus Nonmoral 422

Two Principles of Moral Reasoning 422

Moral Principles 424

Deriving Specific Moral Value Judgments 424

Major Perspectives in Moral Reasoning 427

Consequentialism 427

Duty Theory/Deontologism 429

Moral Relativism 430

Religious Relativism 432

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CONTENTS xiii

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Religious Absolutism 432

Virtue Ethics 432

Moral Deliberation 435

Legal Reasoning 439

Justifying Laws: Four Perspectives 441

Aesthetic Reasoning 444

Eight Aesthetic Principles 444

Using Aesthetic Principles to Judge Aesthetic Value 447

Evaluating Aesthetic Criticism: Relevance and Truth 448

Why Reason Aesthetically? 450

Recap 452

Additional Exercises 453

Answers and Tips 455

Appendix: Selected Exercises from Previous Editions 457

Glossary 480

Index 488

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moo41025_fm_i-xxvi.indd xiv 12/10/19 01:23 PM

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More Engaging

Moore & Parker are known for fresh and lively writing. They rely on their own classroom experience and on feedback from instructors in getting the correct balance between

explication and example.

■ ■ Examples and exercises are drawn from today’s headlines.

■ ■ Students learn to apply critical thinking skills to situ- ations in a wide variety of areas: advertising, poli- tics, the media, popular culture.

Critical Thinking . . . Skills for

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Co Gn ITIv E BIASES 19

moo41025_ch01_001-032.indd 19 09/06/19 12:33 PM

impossible to think that good judgment or rational thought would lead them to such excess.*

Yet another possible source of psychological distortion is the overconfidence effect, one of several self-deception biases that may be found in a variety of contexts.** If a person estimates the percentage of his or her correct answers on a subject, the esti- mate will likely err on the high side—at least if the questions are difficult or the subject matter is unfa- miliar.† Perhaps some manifestation of the overcon- fidence effect explains why, in the early stages of the American Idol competition, many contestants appear totally convinced they will be crowned the next American Idol—and are speechless when the judges inform them they cannot so much as carry a tune.††

Closely related to the overconfidence effect is the better-than-average illusion. The illusion crops up when most of a group rate themselves as better than most of the group relative to some desirable charac- teristics, such as resourcefulness or driving ability. The classic illustration is the 1976 survey of SAT tak- ers, in which well over 50 percent of the respondents rated themselves as better than 50 percent of other SAT takers with respect to such qualities as leader- ship ability.‡ The same effect has been observed when people estimate how their intelligence, memory, or job performance stacks up with the intelligence, memory, and job performances of other members of their profession or workplace. In

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