Imagine that you have been charged with transforming the performance of a team at your workplace.? Specifically, it is under-perf
Imagine that you have been charged with transforming the performance of a team at your workplace. Specifically, it is under-performing, and your supervisor wants the team to be high-performing within six months. Based on the information in Chapter 18 of Organizational Behavior in Health Care and your own research develop a presentation for your supervisor that addresses the following:
- Discuss reasons that healthcare teams under-perform.
- Outline best practices for team performance.
- Discuss the various organizational barriers that exist in your organization that affect team effectiveness.
- Describe motivational strategies that address team level performance.
- Present your team performance improvement plan making sure to include specific time-bound goals.
Provide examples from the organization and from current research to support your comments and ideas. Your presentation should meet the following structural requirements:
- Organized, using professional themes and transitions.
- It should consist of nine slides, not including the title and reference slides.
- Each slide must provide detailed speaker’s notes, with a minimum of 100 words per slide. Notes must draw from and cite relevant reference materials.
- Provide support for your statements with in-text citations from a minimum of six scholarly articles. Two of these sources may be from the class readings, textbook, or lectures, but the other four must be external. The Saudi Digital Library is a good place to find these references.
- Follow APA 7th edition and Saudi Electronic University writing standards.
- You are strongly encouraged to submit all assignments to the Turnitin Originality Check prior to submitting them to your instructor for grading. If you are unsure how to submit an assignment to the Originality Check tool, review the Turnitin Originality Check Student Guide.
Organizational Behavior in
HEALTH CARE
FOURTH EDITION
Nancy Borkowski, DBA, FACHE, FHFMA Professor
Department of Health Services Administration School of Health Professions
University of Alabama at Birmingham Birmingham, AL
Katherine A. Meese, PhD Assistant Professor
Department of Health Services Administration School of Health Professions
University of Alabama at Birmingham Birmingham, AL
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Brief Contents
Preface xii About the Authors xiii
PART I Introduction 1
CHAPTER 1 Overview and History of Organizational Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
CHAPTER 2 Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in Health Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
CHAPTER 3 Diversity Management and Cultural Competency in Health Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
CHAPTER 4 Attitudes and Perceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
CHAPTER 5 Workplace Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
PART II Understanding Individual Behaviors 103
CHAPTER 6 Content Theories of Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
CHAPTER 7 Process Theories of Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
CHAPTER 8 Attribution Theory and Motivation . . . . . . . . 145
PART III Leadership 161
CHAPTER 9 Power, Politics, and Infl uence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
CHAPTER 10 Trait and Behavioral Theories of Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
iii
CHAPTER 11 Contingency Theories and Situational Models of Leadership . . . . . . . . . . 187
CHAPTER 12 Contemporary Leadership Theories . . . . . . . 205
PART IV Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Issues 227
CHAPTER 13 Stress in the Workplace and Stress Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
CHAPTER 14 Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
CHAPTER 15 Confl ict Management and Negotiation Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
PART V Groups and Teams 297
CHAPTER 16 Overview of Group Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
CHAPTER 17 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
CHAPTER 18 Work Teams and Team Building . . . . . . . . . . . 327
PART VI Managing Organizational Change 341
CHAPTER 19 Organization Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
CHAPTER 20 Managing Resistance to Change . . . . . . . . . . . .361
Index 379
iv Brief Contents
© Valex/Shutterstock
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
PART I Introduction 1
CHAPTER 1 Overview and History of Organizational Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Why Study Organizational Behavior
in Health Care? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 The Health Care Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 History of Organizational Behavior . . . . . 6 The Hawthorne Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Theories X and Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Related Disciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 What Do You Know About
Organizational Behavior? . . . . . . . . . . 10 Scoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
CHAPTER 2 Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in Health Care . . . 13
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion
Defi ned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Changing U .S . Population . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Race/Ethnicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and Gender Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Implications for the Health Care Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Exercise 2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Exercise 2-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Exercise 2-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Other Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . 25
CHAPTER 3 Diversity Management and Cultural Competency in Health Care . . . . 27
Diversity Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 The Future Workforce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Diversity in Health Care Leadership . . . 30 Cultural Competency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Exercise 3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Exercise 3-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Exercise 3-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
CHAPTER 4 Attitudes and Perceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Cognitive Dissonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Formation of Attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
v
Measurement of Attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Changing Attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Attribution Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Social Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Halo Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Contrast Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Stereotyping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Pygmalion Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Impression Management . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Employee Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Case Study and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . 66 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Other Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . . 70
CHAPTER 5 Workplace Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Communication Process . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
The Johari Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Communication Channels . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Verbal Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Electronic Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Nonverbal Communication . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Barriers to Communication . . . . . . . . . 81
Environmental Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Personal Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Overcoming Barriers to Improve Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Effective Communication for Knowledge Management . . . . . . . . . . 85
Strategic Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Flows of Intraorganizational
Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Upward Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Downward Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Horizontal Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Diagonal Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Communication Networks . . . . . . . . . . 89 Informal Communication . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Cross-Cultural Communication . . . . . . 94 Communicating with External
Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
PART II Understanding Individual Behaviors 103
CHAPTER 6 Content Theories of Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Alderfer’s ERG Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory . . . . . . 112 Job Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 McClelland’s Three-Needs Theory . . . 118
Achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Affiliation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Case Studies and Exercises . . . . . . . . 122 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Other Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . 126
CHAPTER 7 Process Theories of Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Expectancy Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Equity Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Satisfaction–Performance Theory . . . 133
vi Contents
Goal-Setting Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Reinforcement Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
CHAPTER 8 Attribution Theory and Motivation . . . . . . . 145
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Attribution Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Attribution Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Attributions and Motivational
States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Learned Helplessness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Aggression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Empowerment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Promoting Motivational Attribution Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Screening for Resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Attributional Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Immunization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Increasing Psychological Closeness . . . . . 153 Multiple Raters of Performance . . . . . . . . 154
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Case Studies and Exercise . . . . . . . . . 155 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Other Suggested Reading . . . . . . . . . . 159
PART III Leadership 161
CHAPTER 9 Power, Politics, and Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Sources of Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Other Sources of Power in an Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Uses of Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Developing a Power Base . . . . . . . . . . 167 Organizational Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Upward Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
CHAPTER 10 Trait and Behavioral Theories of Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Trait Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Lewin’s Behavioral Study . . . . . . . . . . 176 Ohio State Leadership Studies . . . . . . 177 University of Michigan Studies . . . . . . 178
Blake and Mouton’s Leadership Grid . . . . 178 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Case Study and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . 181 Exercise 10-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Exercise 10-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Exercise 10-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Exercise 10-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Exercise 10-5 Leadership
Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
CHAPTER 11 Contingency Theories and Situational Models of Leadership . . . . . . . . . 187
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Fiedler’s Contingency Theory . . . . . . . 188 House’s Path–Goal Leadership
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s
Continuum of Leadership Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model . . . . . 194
Contents vii
Leader–Member Exchange Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Exercise 11-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
CHAPTER 12 Contemporary Leadership Theories . . . . . . . . . . 205
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Transformational Versus
Transactional Leadership . . . . . . . . 206 Transactional Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Transformational Leadership . . . . . . . . . . 207
Transformational Leadership: A Contradictory View . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
The Implications of Transformational Leadership for the Health Care Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Other Contemporary Leadership Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
The Charismatic Leader . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Servant Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Collaborative Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Another Look at Traits and Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Big Five Personality Factors . . . . . . . . . . 215 Emotional Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Behavioral Competencies . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Exercise 12-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Exercise 12-2 Are You a
Charismatic Leader? . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Exercise 12-3 What Is Your EQ? . . . . . 221 Exercise 12-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Appendix 12-A Traits and Skills
of Collaborative Leaders . . . . . . . . . 222
Appendix 12-B Six Key Practices and Necessary Steps for Leaders to Guide Successful Collaborations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Other Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . 225
PART IV Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Issues 227
CHAPTER 13 Stress in the Workplace and Stress Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Work-Related Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Workplace Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Stressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Positive and Negative Stressors . . . . . . . . 234 Internal or External Stressors/Acute
or Chronic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Individuals and Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Personalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Underrepresented Populations . . . . . . . . 238
Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Beliefs About Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Burnout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Presenteeism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Causes of Workplace Stress . . . . . . . . 243 Coping with Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Organizational Coping Strategies . . . . . . 246 Joy in Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Job Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Individual Coping Strategies . . . . . . . . 249
Learned Optimism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Stress Management Programs . . . . . . 252 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
viii Contents
Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Other Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . 258
CHAPTER 14 Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Rational Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Bounded Rationality Model . . . . . . . . . . 262 Intuition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Heuristics or Biases Approach . . . . . . . . . 264 Escalation of Commitment
and Framing Heuristics . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Decision-Style Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Vroom-Yetton Decision-Making Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Exercise 14-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Exercise 14-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Exercise 14-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Other Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . 273
CHAPTER 15 Conflict Management and Negotiation Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Types of Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 Levels of Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Intrapersonal Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Interpersonal Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Intragroup Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Intergroup Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Interorganizational Conflict . . . . . . . . . . 281
Conflict Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Conflict Negotiation Models . . . . . . . . . . 284
Distributive Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Integrative Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Interactive Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Benefits of Skilled Conflict Resolution and Negotiation . . . . . . . 288
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Other Suggested Readings . . . . . . . . . 296
PART V Groups and Teams 297
CHAPTER 16 Overview of Group Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 What Is a Group? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Group Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Why Do People Join Groups? . . . . . . . 301 Roles of Group Members . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Group Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Cohesiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Size of the Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Social Loafing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Experience of Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Group Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Outside Threats to the Group . . . . . . . . . 308
Conformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Groupthink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Discussion Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 Exercise 16-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Exercise 16-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Be the Best We Can Be Team Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Exercise 16-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Contents ix
CHAPTER 17 Groups . . . . . . . . . . 315
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Types of Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Primary Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Secondary Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Reference Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Informal or Formal Group Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Informal Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Formal Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Group Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Group Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Rational Decision-Making
Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Brainstorming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Nominal Group Technique . . . . . . . . . . . 323 The Delphi Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Irrational Decision-Making Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
The “Garbage Can” Decision-Making Process . . . . . . . . . …
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