Systems Perspective and Social Change As a social worker, when you address the needs of an individual client, you must also take int
Discussion – Week 11
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Discussion: Systems Perspective and Social Change
As a social worker, when you address the needs of an individual client, you must also take into account the systems with which the client interacts. Obtaining information about these systems helps you better assess your client's situation. These systems may provide support to the client, or they may contribute to the client's presenting problem. Consider the example of a workplace; a client may get great satisfaction and sense of purpose from a career but the interpersonal relationships at the workplace itself are toxic. This system could be contributing both positively and negatively to the client’s well-being.
For this Discussion, you examine the systems perspective and its relevance and application to practice, in light of all you have learned about human behavior and the social environment.
To Prepare:
- Review the Learning Resources on the systems perspective.
- Access the Social Work Case Studies media and navigate to Lester.
- As you explore Lester’s case, consider the systems with which Lester interacts. Think about ways you might apply a systems perspective to his case. Also consider the significance of the systems perspective for social work in general.
By Day 02/09/2022
Post an explanation of how multiple systems within the social environment interact to impact individuals across the life span. Use Lester’s case as an example. Then explain how you as a social worker might apply a systems perspective to your work with Lester. Finally, explain how you might apply a systems perspective to social work practice in general.
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Required Readings
Zastrow, C. H., & Kirst-Ashman, K. K. (2019). Understanding human behavior and the social environment (11th ed.). Cengage Learning.
- Review Chapter 1, "Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment" (pp. 1–44)
Required Media
Follow Rubric
Initial Posting: Content
14.85 (49.5%) – 16.5 (55%)
Initial posting thoroughly responds to all parts of the Discussion prompt. Posting demonstrates excellent understanding of the material presented in the Learning Resources, as well as ability to apply the material. Posting demonstrates exemplary critical thinking and reflection, as well as analysis of the weekly Learning Resources. Specific and relevant examples and evidence from at least two of the Learning Resources and other scholarly sources are used to substantiate the argument or viewpoint.
Readability of Postings
5.4 (18%) – 6 (20%)
Initial and response posts are clear and coherent. Few if any (less than 2) writing errors are made. Student writes with exemplary grammar, sentence structure, and punctuation to convey their message.
Discussion – Week 11
Top of Form
Discussion: Systems Perspective and Social Change
As a social worker, when you address the needs of an individual client, you must also take into account the systems with which the client interacts. Obtaining information about these systems helps you better assess your client's situation. These systems may provide support to the client, or they may contribute to the client's presenting problem. Consider the example of a workplace; a client may get great satisfaction and sense of purpose from a career but the interpersonal relationships at the workplace itself are toxic. This system could be contributing both positively and negatively to the client’s well-being.
For this Discussion, you examine the systems perspective and its relevance and application to practice, in light of all you have learned about human behavior and the social environment.
To Prepare:
· Review the Learning Resources on the systems perspective.
· Access the Social Work Case Studies media and navigate to Lester.
· As you explore Lester’s case, consider the systems with which Lester interacts. Think about ways you might apply a systems perspective to his case. Also consider the significance of the systems perspective for social work in general.
By Day 02/09/2022 Post an explanation of how multiple systems within the social environment interact to impact individuals across the life span. Use Lester’s case as an example. Then explain how you as a social worker might apply a systems perspective to your work with Lester. Finally, explain how you might apply a systems perspective to social work practice in general.
Bottom of Form
Required Readings
Zastrow, C. H., & Kirst-Ashman, K. K. (2019). Understanding human behavior and the social environment (11th ed.). Cengage Learning.
· Review Chapter 1, "Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment" (pp. 1–44)
Wickrama, K. A. S., O’Neal, C. W., & Lee, T. K. (2020). Aging together in enduring couple relationships: A life course systems perspective. Journal of Family Theory and Review, 12(2), 238–263. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12369
Required Media
Walden University, LLC. (2021). Social work case studies [Interactive media]. https://class.waldenu.edu
· Navigate to Lester.
Follow Rubric
Initial Posting: Content
14.85 (49.5%) - 16.5 (55%)
Initial posting thoroughly responds to all parts of the Discussion prompt. Posting demonstrates excellent understanding of the material presented in the Learning Resources, as well as ability to apply the material. Posting demonstrates exemplary critical thinking and reflection, as well as analysis of the weekly Learning Resources. Specific and relevant examples and evidence from at least two of the Learning Resources and other scholarly sources are used to substantiate the argument or viewpoint.
Readability of Postings
5.4 (18%) - 6 (20%)
Initial and response posts are clear and coherent. Few if any (less than 2) writing errors are made. Student writes with exemplary grammar, sentence structure, and punctuation to convey their message.
Chapter 1 Summary The following summarizes this chapter’s content as it relates to the learning objectives presented at the beginning of the chapter. Chapter content will help prepare students to do the following:
LO 1 Explain the importance of foundation knowledge for social work with an emphasis on assessment. This book provides a knowledge base in preparation for social work practice. Social workers need knowledge in order to understand the dynamics of human behavior and conduct client assessments. The social work pro-cess then involves helping clients identify and evaluate available alternatives to select the best plan of action. LO 2 Review the organization of this book that emphasizes lifespan development. This book is organized using a lifespan approach. The lifespan is divided into four phases: infancy and childhood, adolescence, young and middle adult-hood, and later adulthood. Chapters on biological, psychological, and social (bio-psycho-social) aspects of development portray common life events, normal developmental milestones, and relevant issues for each life phase. LO 3 Describe important concepts for understand-ing human behavior (that are stressed throughout the book and include human diversity, cultural competency, oppression, populations-at-risk, em-powerment, the strengths perspective, resiliency, human rights, and critical thinking about ethical issues). Human diversity is the vast range of human differ-ences among groups, including those related to “age, class, color, culture, disability and ability, ethnicity, gender, gender identity and expression, immigration status, marital status, political ideology, race, reli-gion/spirituality, sex, sexual orientation, and tribal sovereign status” (CSWE, 2015). Chapter Summary The following summarizes this chapter’s content as it relates to the learning objectives presented at the beginning of the chapter. Chapter content will help prepare students to do the following: LO 1 Explain the importance of foundation knowledge for social work with an emphasis on assessment. This book provides a knowledge base in preparation for social work practice. Social workers need knowledge in order to understand the dynamics of human behavior and conduct client assessments. The social work pro-cess then involves helping clients identify and evaluate available alternatives to select the best plan of action. LO 2 Review the organization of this book that emphasizes lifespan development. This book is organized using a lifespan approach. The lifespan is divided into four phases: infancy and childhood, adolescence, young and middle adult-hood, and later adulthood. Chapters on biological, psychological, and social (bio-psycho-social) aspects of development portray common life events, normal developmental milestones, and relevant issues for each life phase. LO 3 Describe important concepts for understand-ing human behavior (that are stressed throughout the book and include human diversity, cultural competency, oppression, populations-at-risk, em-powerment, the strengths perspective, resiliency, human rights, and critical thinking about ethical issues). Human diversity is the vast range of human differ-ences among groups, including those related to “age, class, color, culture, disability and ability, ethnicity, gender, gender identity and expression, immigration status, marital status, political ideology, race, reli-gion/spirituality, sex, sexual orientation, and tribal sovereign status” (CSWE, 2015). One major goal of social work education is to facilitate students’ attainment of the EPAS-designated nine core competencies and their 31 related behaviors so that students develop into competent practitioners. Students require knowledge in order to develop skills and become competent. Our intent here is to specify what chapter content and knowledge coincides with the development of specific competencies and behaviors.
first cites the various Educational Policy (EP) core competencies and their related behaviors (which are alphabetized beneath competencies) that are relevant to chapter content. Note that most of the listing follows the order that competencies and behaviors are cited in the EPAS. We have established (See the Special Notes section at the end of this chapter) that “helping hands” icons such as that illustrated in this paragraph are interspersed throughout the chapter indicating where relevant accompanying content is located. Page numbers noted below indicate where icons are placed in the chapter. Following the icon’s page number is a brief explanation of how the content accompanying the icon relates to the specified competency or practice behavior. EP1 Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior (pp. 2, 46) Ethical questions are posed. EP6a. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies; EP7b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and constituencies; EP8b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies (all of this chapter). Material on concepts and theories about human behavior and the social environment are presented throughout this chapter. EP1a through EP 9d: All the competencies and behaviors of 2015 EPAS (pp. 57–61). This section reprints the knowledge, skills, values, and cognitive and affective processes needed for social work practice, as stated in 2015 EPAS. WEB RESOURCES
,
1
© 2021 Walden University, LLC. Adapted from Plummer, S. -B., Makris, S., & Brocksen, S. M. (Eds.). (2014). Social
work case studies: Foundation year. Laureate International Universities Publishing.
Lester
Lester is a 59-year-old divorced African American male with two adult children. Four
months ago, he was a driver in a multiple vehicle crash while visiting his daughter in
another city and was injured in the accident, although he was not at fault. Prior to the
accident he was an electrician and lived on his own in a single-family home. He was an
active member in his church and a worship leader. He has a supportive brother and
sister-in-law who also live nearby. Both of his children have left the family home, and his
son is married and lives in a nearby large metropolitan area.
When he was admitted to the hospital, Lester’s CT showed some intracerebral
hemorrhaging, and the follow-up scans showed a decrease in bleeding but some
midline shift. He seemed to have only limited cognition of his hospitalization. When his
children came to visit, he smiled and verbalized in short words but could not
communicate in sentences; he winced and moaned to indicate when he was in pain. He
had problems with balance and could not stand independently nor walk without
assistance. Past medical history includes type 2 diabetes; elevated blood pressure; a
long history of smoking, with some emphysema; and a 30-day in-house treatment for
alcoholism 6 years ago.
One month ago, he was discharged from the hospital to a rehabilitation facility, and at
his last medical review it was estimated he will need an additional 2 months’ minimum
treatment and follow-up therapies in the facility.
As the social worker at the rehab center, I conducted a biopsychosocial assessment
after his admission to rehabilitation.
Biopsychosocial Assessment
At the time of the assessment, Lester was impulsive and was screened for self-harm,
which was deemed low risk. He did not have insight into the extent of his injury or
changes resulting from the accident but was frustrated and cried when he could not
manipulate his hands. Lester’s children jointly hold power of attorney (POA),but had not
expressed any interest to date in his status or care. His brother is his shared decision
making (SDM) proxy, but his sister-in-law seemed to be the most actively involved in
planning for his follow-up care. His son and daughter called but had not visited, but his
sister-in-law had visited him almost daily; praying with him at the bedside; and
managing his household financials, mail, and house security during this period. His
brother kept asking when Lester would be back to “normal” and able to manage on his
own and was eager to take him out of the rehabilitation center.
Lester seemed depressed, showed some flat affect, did not exhibit competency or show
interest in decision making, and needed ongoing help from his POA and SDM. His
medical prognosis for full recovery remains limited, with his Glasgow Coma Scale at
less than 9, which means his injury is categorized as catastrophic.
2
© 2021 Walden University, LLC. Adapted from Plummer, S. -B., Makris, S., & Brocksen, S. M. (Eds.). (2014). Social
work case studies: Foundation year. Laureate International Universities Publishing.
Lester currently has limited mobility and is continent, but he is not yet able to self-feed
and cannot self-care for cleanliness; he currently needs assistance washing, shaving,
cleaning his teeth, and dressing. He continues with daily occupational therapy (OT) and
physical therapy (PT) sessions.
He will also need legal assistance to apply for his professional association pension and
benefits and possible long-term disability. He will also need help identifying services for
OT and PT after discharge.
He will need assistance from family members as the determination is made whether he
can return to his residence with support or seek housing in a long-term care facility. He
will need long-term community care on discharge to help with basic chores of dressing
and feeding and self-care if he is not in a residential care setting.
A family conference is indicated to review Lester’s current status and short-term goals
and to make plans for discharge.
,
Kandauda (K. A. S.) Wickrama and Catherine Walker O’Neal University of Georgia
Tae Kyoung Lee University of Miami
Aging Together in Enduring Couple Relationships:
A Life Course Systems Perspective
This article introduces and demonstrates the use of an integrated life course systems perspective to advance the study of the aging processes of couples in enduring relationships. This objec- tive is accomplished by bridging the life course and systems perspectives to conceptualize the couple as a functioning system and to locate couple dynamics within a longitudinal life course context in order to identify multilevel relational mechanisms that explain partners’ aging outcomes in their broader socioeco- nomic and longitudinal context. Informed by this integrated theoretical perspective, testable hypotheses related to aging processes are derived, and analytical methodologies that can advance the research on couple aging processes are demonstrated. Identifying these relationship-health processes and contextual considerations provides insight into leverage points for the development and implementation of prevention and intervention efforts to facil- itate positive aging outcomes. Directions for further theoretical and analytical advances in the area of couple aging are discussed.
Minimal research has investigated aging in the context of the couple relationship, even though
Department of Human Development and Family Science, University of Georgia, 107 Family Science Center II (House D), Athens, GA 30602 ([email protected]).
Key Words: Adult development, aging families, application of theory and method, health, marriage.
intimate couple relationships are often among the most salient relationships for older adults. Thus, theoretical developments that inform research on couples’ aging processes and later-life outcomes in the context of enduring but changing couple relationships are an impor- tant task for family gerontologists. In particular, such theoretical advances must acknowledge continuity and change in experiences over the life course. This article advances this direction of theorizing in its specific focus on couples in enduring relationships during the latter half of the life course, beginning in their mid- to later years (40 years of age and older), when signs of the aging process typically begin to appear. Although the specific focus on enduring couple relationships means that this model in its original conceptualization is specific to couples entering their mid- to later years with already-established relationships (e.g., those married in their 20s), the conceptual and analytical models discussed may be extended to various relationship types (e.g., same-sex couples) and less established relationships (e.g., cohabiting couples) as well—a point to which we return when considering the application to other populations).
Gerontological research has frequently uti- lized the successful aging model (Rowe & Kahn, 1998) to study aging outcomes, such as an indi- vidual’s declines in mental and physical health and cognition as well as social relations. Accord- ing to the successful aging model, an individ- ual’s attitudes, beliefs, and actions, as well as
238 Journal of Family Theory & Review 12 (June 2020): 238–263 DOI:10.1111/jftr.12369
Aging Together 239
physical and cognitive capacities, contribute to established lifestyles, including health behav- iors early in adulthood that continue into later adulthood (Rowe & Kahn, 1998). However, the successful aging model has been criticized for its limited scope and lack of consideration of contextual factors, including the accumulation of, and changes in, life experiences over the life course, that likely influence aging outcomes (Stowe & Cooney, 2015). In particular, over- looking stable and changing characteristics of these long-term relationships as an influential context is problematic given the salience of the couple relationship at later life stages.
In addition to the successful aging model, several social psychological theoretical perspec- tives have been used to explain aging outcomes. Among them, the life course perspective (Elder, 1998; Settersten, 2003; Stowe & Cooney, 2015) and systems perspective (Broderick, 1993) have been widely used by family and life course researchers to explain aging outcomes. Both the systems and the life course perspectives have important strengths that can enhance the study of aging couples, but they also have limitations. As we will discuss in more detail, the systems per- spective emphasizes the importance of relational dependence and family dynamics in explaining changes in health and well-being (Broderick, 1993). In this article, we consider enduring cou- ples as a relatively stable dyadic system and apply principles of the systems perspective to effectively consider aging in a relational context. However, the systems perspective lacks an ade- quate focus on the continuity and accumulation of life experiences over time (i.e., situating the individual or couple in the context of previous experiences). The systems perspective also fails to adequately consider the influence of structural socioeconomic context (e.g., historical time and place, social class, community).
In contrast to the systems perspective, the life course perspective emphasizes the continuity and changes in individuals’ life experiences over the life course (including the accumulation of these experiences) while also highlighting the impact of distal and structural environ- ments as well as proximal social and economic environments for health and well-being (Elder, 1998; Settersten, 2003). The life course per- spective, however, lacks an adequate emphasis on micro-level relationship dynamics, includ- ing interindividual and individual-context associations. Bridging these two perspectives
combines their strengths and ameliorates their shortcomings while providing an integrated theoretical framework with enhanced explana- tory power for couple-focused aging research (Utz, Berg, & Butner, 2016). Furthermore, the combination of the two theories is consistent with studies that have called for the integration of the life course and systems perspectives when studying the aging outcomes of adults nested within families (Utz et al., 2016). We extend this approach to inform future studies of the aging process for individuals in long-term, enduring couple relationships with the goal of developing theoretical tenets and analytical guidelines for the study of aging processes and outcomes in the couple context. Accordingly, this article has three main objectives: (a) to incorporate the life course and systems perspectives into an integrated life course systems perspective that can advance knowledge of individuals’ aging process in the context of enduring cou- ple relationships; (b) to demonstrate how an integrated life course systems perspective can inform hypotheses and to discuss advanced analytical approaches that can be utilized to test those hypotheses; and (c) to recommend future directions to further strengthen the integrated life course systems perspective and enhance knowledge of individuals’ aging process.
An Integrated Life Course Systems Perspective
The Life Course Perspective
Consistent with the life course perspective, aging is not limited to a single life stage. Instead, it is a process that unfolds across the life course, characterized by trajectories of continuity and change (Elder & Geile, 2009). Further, the life course perspective contends that later-life experiences are a product of an individual’s experiences at previous life stages; that is, life is a continuous chain of events and circumstances influenced by multiple contextual, relational, and individual factors. The theory specifically emphasizes certain factors, including historical place and time, social structure, continuity, and parallel social and developmental pathways, social and close relationships, and personal agency (Elder, 1998; Settersten, 2003; Stowe & Cooney, 2015). These factors influence life experiences in various ways, including the pro- vision of resources, the constraints exerted, and individuals’ ability to make their own choices.
240 Journal of Family Theory & Review
Individuals’ lives are situated within his- torical place and time, which influences the aging process because the sociohistorical envi- ronment has an impact on available resources and also exerts constraints on individuals’ life experiences. For example, the majority of older adults today are members of the baby-boom cohort, named for its large size in comparison to previous generations. The range of resources and constraints experienced vary by cohort. Fur- thermore, in this cohort, those who lived in the rural Midwest (historical place) and experienced the rural farming crisis of the late 1980s (histor- ical time) experienced particular resources and constraints. Such individuals may have social trajectories (e.g., relational, work, and economic experiences over time) that vary from earlier and later cohorts or even from members of their own cohort who were not located in areas affected by the farm crisis (Conger & Elder, 1994; Lorenz, Elder, Bao, Wickrama, & Conger, 2000). These distinct social trajectories stemming from his- torical time and place may result in different aging (health and well-being) trajectories.
Like historical place and time, social struc- ture, as marked by characteristics such as social class, race, and gender, also contributes to available resources and constraints, thereby influencing life experiences and exerting a persistent influence on an individual’s aging process over the life course. These character- istics are largely ascribed to individuals from birth, yet they are influential across the life span. For instance, research has shown that character- istics of social class in the family of origin and related early socioeconomic adversities, such as early family economic hardship, influence the health and well-being outcomes of older adults even after accounting for adult life experiences (Moody-Ayers, Lindquist, Sen, & Covinsky, 2007; Wickrama, Mancini, Kwag, & Kwon, 2012).
In conceptualizing how early and accumulat- ing life experiences come to influence later life, the life course perspective recognizes the exis- tence of parallel social and developmental path- ways. That is, there are thought to be intercon- nected, or parallel, trajectories of social circum- stances (e.g., stressful experiences) and develop- mental attributes within an individual. Changes in social circumstances can reflect changes in developmental attributes, and vice versa. In this way, experiences (including cumulative experi- ences) and development at each life stage are
sequentially linked to the next life stage. For example, previous studies have shown that anxi- ety symptom trajectories are influenced by work insecurity trajectories, reflecting parallel trajec- tories of changes in work or financial context and mental health (Wickrama, O’Neal, & Lorenz, 2018). Moreover, physical health trajectories of husbands and wives are influenced by marital quality trajectories (Robles, 2014; Wickrama, Lorenz, & Conger, 1997), and trajectories of stressful experiences may be associated with tra- jectories of physical health risks, as measured by multiple biomarkers of metabolic syndrome, inflammation, and epigenetics indicating level of disease risk or accelerated aging (e.g., Arbeev et al., 2018). Notably, the conceptualized social pathway is not limited to continuous constructs (e.g., marital quality), as it can also consist of discrete events (e.g., children leaving home, retirement). The timing and sequence of such life events and transitions are important characteris- tics that constitute the social pathway.
A relational component of the life course perspective is the emphasis on social and close relationships. In particular, the life course perspective emphasizes the phenomenon of “linked lives,” with the marital relationship being the primary example. That is, partners’ daily life activities are intertwined with their life trajectories, and each individual’s life trajecto- ries influence his or her partner’s trajectories (e.g., stress transfer; Milkie, 2010). Moreover, couples’ shared life trajectories represent experi- ences that are common to both partners, such as family economic hardship (Elder, 1998; Stowe & Cooney, 2015). These mutual influences may operate at least in part through the provision, or lack thereof, of social and emotional resources in the couple’s relational context. For example, previous studies have shown that individuals’ physical health trajectories are influenced by their partner’s physical health trajectories as well as by the couple’s shared experiences of economic hardship over time (Cobb et al., 2015; Kiecolt-Glaser & Wilson, 2017; Ledermann & Kenny, 2012; Wickrama, O’Neal, & Neppl, 2019). Such influences are not limited to phys- ical health. Research has provided evidence of similar mutual influences for partners’ mental health, such as husbands’ and wives’ depres- sive symptom trajectories over the life course (Kiecolt-Glaser & Wilson, 2017; Wickrama, King, O’Neal, & Lorenz, 2019).
Aging Together 241
Last, although the life course perspective’s emphasis on relationships and the broader context is important for examining aging and later-life outcomes in the context of enduring couple relationships, the life course perspective also recognizes that individuals are not solely a product of their context. Individual agency rec- ognizes the influence of personal choices. Both positive characteristics (e.g., positive affect, mastery, self-regulation, self-esteem) and nega- tive characteristics (e.g., neuroticism, hostility) of individuals play roles in life choices and, in turn, affect continuity and change in an indi- vidual’s life experiences. Studies have shown that individual choices can shape, and even turn, developmental trajectories. For example, joining the military has been shown to positively turn disadvantaged young adults’ developmental tra- jectories in some instances (Gotlib & Wheaton, 1997). Moreover, early choices related to work, marriage, and parenthood have been shown to negatively influence youth developmental outcomes (Koball et al., 2010; Lee, Wickrama, O’Neal, & Prado, 2018). Later in life, decisions often largely drive changes such as divorce, remarriage, relocation, and timing of retirement that may alter developmental trajectories. These decisions have also been shown to influence older adults’ health and well-being trajectories in the context of structural constraints (Setter- sten, 2003). In the present conceptualization, we consider race/ethnicity and gender together with agency as influential individual characteristics.
In summary, the life course perspective provides a framework for understanding aging processes in the couple context, giving consid- eration to influences that stem from (a) specific time periods (historical place and time); (b) elements of social structure; (c) intraindividual parallel trajectories of social and developmen- tal trajectories; (d) social and relational factors, including the linked lives of partners; and (e) per- sonal characteristics (e.g., individual agency).
The Systems Perspective and Conceptualizing Relational Systems
Consistent with the systems perspective, rela- tionships can be conceptualized as systems (i.e., an organized whole). The general systems perspective (Von Bertalanffy, 1969) contends that a system is comprised of interconnected, dependent parts that mutually influence one another. More importantly, the constituent
parts (i.e., individuals) are influenced by the system (i.e., the relationship), and at the same time, these parts influence the system, effecting changes in the system as a whole. Notably, system characteristics, particularly processes within the system, are not merely the sum of constituent parts but are higher-order properties of the system. In addition, structural, or global, system characteristics (e.g., size, number of parts, composition, duration) can play a role in how the system and its constituents function, interact, and affect one another.
The family systems theory (Broderick, 1993; Cox & Paley, 1997) was derived from the gen- eral systems perspective by applying systems principles to the family. Thus, family members are interdependent parts of the family system, in which interindividual influences exist among family members and multilevel influences oper- ate between members and the family system. Because there is variation between families as well as between members in a family, individ- ual variations are decomposed into between and within components (i.e., what varies between families and what varies within families).
A smaller system in many families is the cou- ple system, to which principles of the systems perspective can also be applied. As previously indicated, we consider an enduring couple to be a relatively stable system and a system in which these members have lived the majority of their lives (Bookwala, 2016). That is, particularly in enduring couple relationships, partners function interdependently and their experiences occur in a context of mutual influences and interactions forming crossover, or partner, effects (e.g., one individual influences his or her partner) and contemporaneous associations between part- ners (e.g., contagion of “sharing” experiences, emotions, and so on). This con
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