DPT and Democratization – 1 paragraph on DPT as understood in current academic/policy-making spheres (ie not Kant). – Critiqu
Hello! I need help with an essay. I have already worked on the first part, but I need help with the rest. DPT and Democratization – 1 paragraph on DPT as understood in current academic/policy-making spheres (ie not Kant). – Critiques to DPT 1. the ″definitional issue″ –˃ already written, please don′t write this part. 2. the causal logic of DPT –˃ assess counter arguments for the structural/institutional logic and the normative/cultural logic. –˃please focus on someone who rejects the normative logic, as I have already done the structural/institutional part. 3. the realist argument provides a better explanation –˃please focus on Rosato 2003 – Work in Oren with his arguments as a build in for democratization: i) democratic peace doesn′t have anything to do with democracy itself, but rather attends to normative parameters. ii) said parameters change in time and together with the was the US forges itself through history. iii) the normative parameters change, but not necessarily in response to internal change, but instead it is very influenced by its foreign policy: “America’s identity has historically developed in ways that made political enemies appear subjectively further and friends subjectively closer to it” (Oren 1995, 151–53). – Democratization –˃ what it is and how it relates to DPT (400 words). – 1 paragraph conclusion on democratization PhD level Thanks a lot
Democracia, guerra y conflicto – Memo 2:
La teoría de la paz democrática
En el presente memo se desarrollará el concepto de la teoría de la paz democrática (en adelante DPT, por sus siglas en inglés) indicando también los argumentos en contra. Seguidamente, se intentará entender su aplicación desde otro punto de vista, el de la democratización de los estados.
Convencionalmente, al hablar de las causas de la paz y la guerra uno de los tópicos inevitables es la llamada “teoría de la paz democrática”, que deriva del libro Sobre la paz perpetua de Immanuel Kant (1795), quien propuso que las constituciones republicanas, el intercambio comercial (materializado en la ley cosmopolita) y un sistema de ley internacional entre repúblicas que siguen el rule of law —que por ende son interdependientes— podría entregar las bases para una paz sostenida (Oneal and Russett 1999, 1; Russett 2013, 95). Contemporáneamente la teoría de la paz democrática alude a que los estados democráticos rara vez incurren en una guerra entre ellos (Oren 1995, 148; Rosato 2003, 585). Hoy en día se trata de un campo bastante amplio tanto en Relaciones Internacionales como en Seguridad Internacional, donde se ha estudiado desde el punto de vista empírico, logrando que tal como famosamente indica Levy (1989, 88): “This absence of war between democracies comes as close as anything we have to an empirical law in international relations” y como anunciaron los editores de la revista International Security, la DPT se ha transformado en una opinión generalizada (“conventional wisdom”) (Editors’ Note 1994, 3).[footnoteRef:1] [1: Nótese que aquella nota editorial (Editors’ Note 1994, 1–4) lo que hizo fue abrir el debate sobre la DPT, y dar cuenta de argumentos a favor y en contra.]
Efectivamente existe bastante evidencia que apunta a que la paz democrática se puede testear desde el punto de vista empírico.[footnoteRef:2] Así, la DPT actual —avanzada entre otros, por el liberalista Michael Doyle— supone que una manera de explicar dos importantes regularidades en la política mundial es: (i) que los estados liberales tienden a la paz en sus relaciones entre sí y que (ii) éstos tienden a la guerra en sus relaciones con estados no-liberales (Doyle 2005, 463).[footnoteRef:3] [2: Ver, por ejemplo, Owen (1994), Oneal y Russett (1999) y Dafoe et al. (2013).] [3: Nótese que Doyle (2005, 463) no usa el término “democracias liberales”, tomando en consideración que no todas las democracias son iguales: “There is no reason at all for indirectly majoritarian governments to be peaceful toward other majoritarian governments. Clearly, a democracy of xenofobes or hyper-nationalists would externalize their preferences”. Por ello es que en ese artículo enfatiza los tres pilares de la DPT que ha postulado desde 1983: (1) la representación democrática republicana, (2) un compromiso ideológico con los Derechos Humanos, y (3) la interdependencia económica transnacional. ]
“Because non-liberal governments are in a state of aggression with their own people, their foreign relations become for liberal governments deeply suspect. In short, fellow liberals benefit from a presumption of amity; nonliberals suffer from a presumption of enmity” (Doyle 1986, 1161).
También existe la propuesta de Maoz y Russett (1993, 624), quienes aseguran que (i) los estados democráticos son tan propensos a la guerra como los estados no democráticos, y que (ii) en los últimos 200 años, las democracias raramente van a la guerra con otra democracias y que ellas “have virtually never fought one another in a full-scale international war”.[footnoteRef:4] El argumento es que algo en la composición interna de los estados democráticos previene que vayan a la guerra con otras democracias, a pesar de ser igual de propensos que estados no democráticos en ir a la guerra (Maoz and Russett 1993, 624). Considero que las definiciones de estados democráticos y estados liberales no es equivalente necesariamente. Pero coincido con Rosato (2003, 586) en que los defensores de la DPT —en su mayoría— han tendido a usar los términos de forma intercambiable, igualando su significado. [4: Estos segundos postulados son más cercanos a los de Gursozlu (2017, 213), en que (i) las democracias liberales rara vez pelean entre sí y que (ii) las democracias liberales son tan propensas como cualquier otro estado en sus relaciones con estados no democráticos.]
Ahora bien, una de las mayores complicaciones que ha suscitado la DPT es que ha sido reducida a un entendimiento limitado de las implicancias y se ha concebido simplemente como que las democracias no se atacan entre sí, lo que a la vez ha llevado a que, por ejemplo, la política exterior de Estados Unidos esté basada en que la mejor manera de asegurar su seguridad y construir una paz durable es apoyando el avance democrático en otros lugares (Oren 1995, 147; discurso de Bill Clinton en Owen 1994, 87). Y, como indica Gursozlu (2017, 213), esta forma de pensar ha llevado a intervenciones militares desastrosas (Layne 1994, 47) y a guerras democratizantes justificadas en base a que es una forma de construir una paz durable (Fiala 2010, 66).
Críticas
Sin embargo, existen tres grandes críticas a la DPT: (1) que la definición de una democracia es poco clara e inconsistente (la misma crítica se le hace a la definición de guerra); (2) que la lógica causal de la DPT está errada; (3) que el realismo ofrece una mejor explicación para la paz entre democracias. Los contraargumentos expresados en los puntos 2 y 3 tienden a estar entrelazados.
(1) El “definitional issue” se basa en que no hay estándares claros o únicos bajo los cuales se pueda catalogar qué país es una democracia y qué país no lo es (Owen 1994, 87–88; Spiro en Russett et al. 1995, 179–80).[footnoteRef:5] Se trata de un asunto que enfrentan todos los conceptos que engloban demasiadas variables y que llevan mucho tiempo discutiéndose, como qué países son liberales e incluso, qué exactamente es una guerra. ¿Cómo podemos comenzar a responder preguntas básicas sobre la paz democrática si ni si quiera podemos convenir en qué es una democracia? [5: El discurso de Bill Clinton puede ser encontrado en: http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=50409#axzz1ss6W8zdb]
Como bien explica John Owen (1994, 87–88) —quien defiende la existencia de paz entre democracias—, uno de los flancos que hacen que la DPT sea vulnerable a las críticas es la cuestión de la definición están en dos ambiguedades inmanentes: ¿cómo se define democracia? y ¿qué puede ser considerado una guerra? En la vereda del frente está el cuestionamiento de David Spiro (1994, 55) quien desafía la teoría de la paz democrática argumentando que en ella se adoptan selectivamente las definiciones de variables clave, con el fin de que su análisis de datos produzca los resultados que buscan tener. Eso es sabido por autores a favor de la DPT, quienes admiten que “[t]he slipperiness of these terms provides a temptation to tautology: to define them so as to safeguard the proposition” (Owen 1994, 87–88). Ahora bien, ese argumento es válido para ambos lados: ni quienes están a favor ni quienes están en contra la DPT tienen una definición y criterios únicos para llegar a sus resultados.
Aun así, no se trata sólo del aspecto de su definición, sino que la crítica va más allá y provoca inconsistencias a la hora de medir el nivel de democracia. Tal como indica Gunitsky (2015), existen diversos índices que dicen medir el nivel de democracia de un país, los más populares son Polity IV y Freedom House. El problema es que sus resultados para un mismo país en un mismo año son muy distintos—ya que las mediciones no miden los mismos asuntos—. Polity IV mide la competitividad de la participación política, la competitividad del reclutamiento del ejecutivo, la apertura del reclutamiento del ejecutivo, y las restricciones al jefe ejecutivo, lo que lleva a resultados que van desde el -10 (fuertemente autocrático) al 10 (fuertemente democrático). Mientras, Freedom House (2020) —una entidad mucho más activista— lo que hace es “defender los derechos humanos y promover el cambio democrático” enfocándose en los derechos políticos y las libertades civiles, analizando cada caso en una escala del 1 (más libre) al 7 (menos libre). Lo anterior hace que las mediciones obviamente sean completamente diferentes, ya que al tomar distintos parámetros es evidente que llegan a resultados diferentes. ¿Cómo se podría solucionar esto? Lo lógico, me parece, es que tanto quienes defienden como quienes niegan la DPT deben llegar a una definición y medición común, ya que, así las cosas, quienes se oponen a una teoría de la paz democrática pueden descartar desde el principio cualquier resultado de un defensor de la DPT a causa de una divergencia en las definiciones o los parámetros. De todas formas, es poco probable que aquello suceda.
(2) La lógica causal de la DPT puede ser institucional (estructural) y/o normativa (cultural) (Maoz and Russett 1993, 624).[footnoteRef:6] El primero se enfoca en los aspectos institucionales que son característicos de los regímenes democráticos, como los checks and balances (la estructura política doméstica) o los efectos restrictivos de la opinión pública (Layne 1994, 6; Oren 1995, 149). El segundo, en tanto, destaca el respeto normativo que las democracias tienen hacia otras democracias —en el entendido de que habría un “shared commitment to the peaceful adjudication of political disputes”— lo que explicaría la lógica causal de los estados democráticos (Layne 1994, 6; Oren 1995, 149). [6: O puede incorporar ambas, ya que no son excluyentes (Maoz and Russett 1993, 626).]
Both norms and institutions may contribute to the phenomenon of peace between democracies; they are somewhat complementary and overlapping. But they are also in some degree distinctive and competing explanations, allowing us to look for greater impact of one or another in various contexts. (Russett 1993, 41)
Christopher Lane —desde un enfoque neorealista— es un crítico de ambas lógicas. Él asegura que los “institutional constraints” no explican la paz democrática (Layne 1994, 12). De acuerdo al enfoque institucional que hace hincapié en los checks and balances, el argumento se basa en que ya que en los estados democráticos los ejecutivos responden a sus votantes, tienen competencia política institucionalizada, y los tomadores de decisiones están repartidos en diversas instituciones o personas, esos estados tienen altas limitaciones institucionales y por ende, es menos probable que decidan a la guerra (Layne 1994, 9).
Este argumento está atado a otro enfoque institucional—el que las democracias son reacias a ir a la guerra porque tienen que responder a sus ciudadanos (Layne 1994, 8). Layne presenta dos buenos contraargumentos. El primero apunta a que si la opinión pública realmente tuviera el efecto que se le asocia, las democracias serían pacíficas con todos los estados —independiente de si el segundo estado es democrático— (Layne 1994, 12). El segundo, Layne, citando a Morgan y Schwebach dice que los checks and balances institucionales no dicen nada sobre cuán proclives son las democracias en ir a la guerra, ya que se enfoca en constreñimientos de la estructura política doméstica de los estados, que aunque normalmente son asociados a las democracias, no son exclusivos a ellas (Morgan y Schwebach en Layne 1994, 12). Así, descarta desde el principio el argumento institucional.
Por otro lado, el argumento normativo es examinado y rechazado por Rosato,
(3) La última crítica es la que dice que el realismo tiene una mejor explicación de por qué los países no van a la guerra que la DPT.
Far from being woolly-headed idealism, liberalism is a theory of how the
United States can best enhance its security. If political liberalism's contention
that democracies do not fight one another is correct, then the more
democracies there are, the more peaceful the world will be. If political
liberalism is right in postulating that non-democratic states tend to be
troublemakers, the United States has an interest in seeing such regimes
replaced by democratic governments. And if political liberalism and
commercial liberalism accurately predict that democracy and economic
interdependence have pacifying effects on states' foreign policies, the
United States can buy security by helping potential great-power rivals like
Russia and China to transform themselves into free-market democracies. (Layne 2001, 800)
The other posits that it is democratic norms and culture-a shared commitment to the peaceful adjudication of political disputes-that accounts for the absence of war between democratic states. As I demonstrate, the institu- tional-constraints argument fails to provide a compelling explanation for the absence of war between democracies. Thus, democratic peace theory's ex- planatory power rests on the persuasiveness of the contention that demo- cratic norms and culture explain why, although democratic states fight with non-democracies, they do not go to war with each other.(Layne 1994, 6)
Uno de los exponentes actuales de las crítica (2 y 3) es Ido Oren (1995, 148), quien afirma que “[t]he democratic character of foreign countries depends on the peacefulness of their foreign policies, no less than their foreign policies toward the United States depend on their democratic character”. Él sostiene que los estudios empíricos sobre la paz democrática son subjetivos y que no hay consenso respecto a cuál es la explicación para aquellos resultados.[footnoteRef:7] Ahora bien, es fundamental remarcar que lo que Oren (1995, 149) busca es desafiar la afirmación de la paz democrática empírica, sin importar su explicación subyacente. Para ello utiliza tres argumentos que van mucho más allá de las críticas de los 90 e implican que todo el concepto de democracia gira en torno a Estados Unidos: (i) la democracia debe ser “normalizada”, entendiéndose que la paz democrática en realidad no tiene que ver con la democracia en sí, sino que atiende a parámetros normativos—y éstos son establecidos en torno a Estados Unidos; (ii) dichos parámetros normativos cambian en el tiempo, junto con la forma en que Estados Unidos se va forjando a través de la historia; y (iii) los parámetros normativos cambian, pero no necesariamente en respuesta a cambios internos, sino que está muy influenciado por la política exterior: “America’s identity has historically developed in ways that made political enemies appear subjectively further and friends subjectively closer to it” (Oren 1995, 151–53). [7: Oren (1995, 149) indica que hay dos formas de explicar los resultados sobre la paz democrática: el argumento normativo y el institucional, explicados anteriormente. Lo importante de esto es que el argumento de Oren no depende de estas líneas explicativas. ]
DPT como justificación para “democratizar”
More recently, this idea about the stabilizing and peace-making power of democracy has influenced neo-conservative ideas in U.S. foreign policy, where the hope is that peace will occur as democracy is spread.
The idea that peace is founded in a just political order is connected to the ideas of the just war tradition. Defenders of the just war tradition—from Augustine to Walzer—argue that occasionally it is necessary to make war in order to establish such a tranquil and just social condition. More recent defenders of the just war idea have argued that interventionist wars should be fought in order to create stable conditions by defending human rights (Fiala 2018)
Aun así, concuerdo con Gursozlu (2017, 217) en que es distinto defender la promoción de la democracia y anunciar una cruzada a favor de las democracias, a la hora de impulsar la paz que se asocia a las democracias.
In terms of processes operating in the present interstate system, this result suggests that to the extent that norms and institutions take time to de- velop, newly created democracies in Eastern Europe and elsewhere may still experience some significant amount of interstate conflict while their political systems are in the process of transition to democracy. But the process of global democratization may carry long-term prospects of international stability that arises not out of the missile launchers but out of (Maoz and Russett 1993, 636)
popular control of governments and of norms of peaceful resolution of political conflicts associated with democratic political systems. It is possible that major features of the international system can be socially constructed from the bottom up; that is, norms and rules of behavior internation- ally become extensions of the norms and rules of domestic political behavior. When many states are ruled autocratically (as they were at the Peace of Westphalia and throughout virtually all of history since then), playing by the rules of autocracy may be the only way for any state-democracy or not-to survive in Hobbesian international anarchy. But if enough states become stably democratic-as may be happening in the 1990s-then the possibility emerges of reconstructing the norms and rules of the interna- tional system to reflect those of democracies. A system created by autocracies may be recreated by a critical mass of democratic states. (Maoz and Russett 1993, 637)
A second challenge is that the lack of wars among democracies, even if true, is not surprising. Wars are so rare that random chance could account for the democratic peace, much as it could account for an absence of war among, say, states whose names begin with the letter K.4 A third critique points out that the democratic peace lacks a convincing theoretical foundation. No one is sure why democracies do not fight one another and yet do fight non-democracies.5 That we do not really know the causal mechanism behind the democratic peace means we cannot be certain the peace is genuine. It may be an epiphenomenon, a by-product of other causal variables such as those suggested by realist theories of inter- national politics.6
(Owen 1994, 87–88)
Trabajos citados
Dafoe, Allan, John R. Oneal, and Bruce Russett. 2013. “The Democratic Peace: Weighing the Evidence and Cautious Inference.” International Studies Quarterly 57(1): 201–14.
Doyle, Michael W. 2005. “Three Pillars of the Liberal Peace.” The American Political Science Review 99(3): 463–66.
“Editors’ Note.” 1994. International Security 19(2): 3–4.
Fiala, Andrew. 2010. Public War, Private Conscience: The Ethics of Political Violence. London: Continuum.
———. 2018. “Pacifism.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/pacifism/.
Freedom House. 2020. “Our Issues.” https://freedomhouse.org/issues (February 26, 2020).
Gunitsky, Seva. 2015. “How Do You Measure ‘Democracy’?” The Washington Post (Monkey Cage). https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2015/06/23/how-do-you-measure-democracy/.
Gursozlu, Fuat. 2017. “The Triumph of the Liberal Democratic Peace and the Dangers of Its Success.” In The Routledge Handbook of Pacifism and Nonviolence, ed. Andrew Fiala. New York: Routledge, 213–24.
Layne, Christopher. 1994. “Kant or Cant: The Myth of the Democratic Peace.” International Security 19(2): 5–49.
———. 2001. “Shell Games, Shallow Gains, and the Democratic Peace.” The International History Review 23(4): 799–813.
Levy, Jack. 1989. “Domestic Politics and War.” In The Origin and Prevention of Major Wars, eds. Robert Rotberg and Theodore Rabb. New York: Cambridge University Press, 79–100.
Maoz, Zeev, and Bruce Russett. 1993. “Normative and Structural Causes of Democratic Peace, 1946-1986.” The American Political Science Review (1927) 87(3): 624.
Oneal, John R., and Bruce Russett. 1999. “The Kantian Peace: The Pacific Benefits of Democracy, Interdependence, and International Organizations, 1885-1992.” World Politics 52(1): 1–37.
Oren, Ido. 1995. “The Subjectivity of the ‘Democratic’ Peace: Changing U.S. Perceptions of Imperial Germany.” International Security 20(2): 147.
Owen, John M. 1994. “How Liberalism Produces Democratic Peace.” International Security 19(2): 87–125.
Rosato, Sebastian. 2003. “The Flawed Logic of Democratic Peace Theory.” The American Political Science Review 97(4): 585–602. http://www.jstor.org.pucdechile.idm.oclc.org/stable/3593025.
Russett, Bruce. 1993. Grasping the Democratic Peace. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
———. 2013. “Liberalism.” In International Relations Theories: Discipline and Diversity, eds. Timothy Dunne, Milja Kurki, and Steve Smith. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 94–113.
Russett, Bruce, Christopher Layne, David E. Spiro, and Michael W. Doyle. 1995. “The Democratic Peace.” International Security 19(4): 164–84.
Spiro, David E. 1994. “The Insignificance of the Liberal Peace.” International Security 19(2): 50–86.
,
The Subjectivity of the "Democratic" Peace: Changing U.S. Perceptions of Imperial Germany Author(s): Ido Oren Source: International Security, Vol. 20, No. 2 (Fall, 1995), pp. 147-184 Published by: The MIT Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2539232 Accessed: 16-07-2017 20:34 UTC
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The Subjectivity of the Ido Oren "Democratic" Peace
Changing U.S. Perceptions of Imperial Germany
Few claims about in- ternational relations are as widely accepted as the claim of a democratic peace.
Many scholars are convinced, along with President Clinton, that "democracies
rarely wage war on one another."' This proposition provides an important
rationale for promoting "democratization" as a pillar of American foreign
policy: "ultimately the best strategy to insure our security and to build a
durable peace is to support the advance of democracy elsewhere."2
However, the search for a democratic peace, scientific though it may be, is
not value-free. I argue that the democratic peace claim is not about democracies
per se as much as it is about countries that are "America-like" or of "our kind."
The apparently objective coding rules by which democracy is defined in fact
represent current American values.
The democratic peace claim is ahistorical; it overlooks the fact that these
values have changed over time. In no small part, this change has been
influenced by changing international political realities. The values embodied
in the current definition of democracy were historically shaped by the need to
distance America from its adversaries. They are products, more than determi-
nants, of America's past foreign political relations. The reason we do not fight
"our kind" is not that "likeness" has a great effect on war propensity, but rather
that we from time to time subtly redefine our kind to keep our self-image
consistent with our friends' attributes and inconsistent with those of our ad-
versaries.
Ido Oren is Assistant Professor of Political Science at the University of Minnesota. He is currently an SSRC-MacArthur Foundation Fellow on Peace and Security in a Changing World.
I thank the following individuals (some of whom disagreed with my argument) for helpful counsel: William Dixon, Geoff Eley, Scott Gates, Jeff Legro, Rhona Leibel, Yair Magen, John Mearsheimer, Andy Moravcsik, Dick Price, Diana Richards, Bruce Russett, Marc Trachtenberg, Stephen Van Evera, Bill Wohlforth, Amy Zegart, two anonymous referees, and especially Raymond Duvall and James Farr. Ethan Cherin and Luigi Cocci extended excellent research assistance.
1. William Clinton, Confronting the Challenges of a Broader World (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of State, 1993). 2. President Clinton's State of the Union Message, January 1994, quoted in John M. Owen, "How Liberalism Produces Democratic Peace," International Security, Vol. 19, No. 2 (Fall 1994), p. 87.
International Security, Vol. 20, No. 2 (Fall 1995), pp. 147-184 ? 1995 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
147
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International Security 20:2 | 148
In 1917 President Wilson denounced German autocracy, and declared war
on Germany to "make the world safe for democracy." Wilson's legacy is
embraced by the present proponents of the democratic peace theory.3 I show,
however, that as a political scientist Wilson viewed Germany not as an autoc-
racy, but as a most advanced constitutional state, and that he admired Prussia's
statism, administration, and its unequal suffrage. In the 1890s Wilson's political
values were different from those currently associated with "democracy," and
Germany as he perceived it was significantly more "normal" by his standards
at the time than it appears by present norms. Only after U.S.-German political
rivalry developed did Wilson begin to differentiate a democratic America from
an autocratic Germany. Indeed, America's very self-portrayal as a democracy
and the norms by which it defines democracy were in part shaped by the
conflict with Imperial Germany These norms, I argue, came to be selected
because the difference between America's political system and its adversary's
was greatest when measured against them.
In the following section I criticize the democratic peace literature and elabo-
rate my argument. Then, I reconstruct the political theories and perceptions of
Germany held by two prominent political scientists of the late nineteenth
century: Woodrow Wilson, later U.S. president, and John Burgess, founder of
the first graduate program in political science in the United States. I conclude
with the theoretical and policy implications of the argument, especially that
"democratization" provides but a frail foundation for U.S. security policy The
democratic character of foreign countries depends on the peacefulness of their
foreign policies, no less than their foreign policies toward the United States
depend on their democratic character.
The Appearance of a Democratic Peace
A remarkable finding emerged from recent empirical research in international
relations: democracies do not wage war on one another.4 In these studies,
3. For example, the motto of chapter 1 in Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), is excerpted from Wilson's 1917 war message to Congress. 4. Key studies include: Michael Doyle, "Liberalism and World Politics," American Political Science Reviezv, Vol. 80, No. 4 (December 1986), pp. 1151-1169; Zeev Maoz and Nasrin Abdulali, "Regime Types and International Conflict, 1815-1976," Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 33, No. 1 (March 1989), pp. 3-35; T. Clifton Morgan and Valerie L. Schwebach, "Take Two Democracies and Call Me in the Morning: A Prescription for Peace?" International Interactions, Vol. 17, No. 4 (1992), pp. 305- 320; William Dixon, "Democracy and the Settlement of International Conflict," American Political
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The Subjectivity of the "Democratic" Peace | 149
polities are coded on a scale that typically takes competitiveness and fairness
of electoral processes, as well as constraints on the freedom of executive action,
as the defining empirical features of democracy.5 It is then shown statistically
that, controlling for other variables, the likelihood of war between democratic
countries is significantly smaller than between non-democracies or between
democracies and non-democracies.
There is no consensus on explaining this finding. Two lines of explanation
have emerged: one highlights the normative respect that democracies harbor
toward each other,6 while the other focuses on institutional features charac-
teristic of democratic regimes.7 The differences
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