Define the term pseudonymity and explain its practice among Hellenistic-Jewish and early Christian writers.? 2. In what speci

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Six canonical letters in which the author explicitly identifi es himself as Paul, Apostle to the Gentiles, contain discrepancies that cause scholars to question their Pauline authorship. Two of the letters—2 Thessalonians and Colossians—are still vigorously disputed, with a large minority

championing their authenticity. But an over- whelming scholarly majority deny that Paul wrote the four others—Ephesians, 1 and 2 Timothy, and Titus. The latter three are called the pastoral epis- tles because the writer—as a pastor or shepherd— offers guidance and advice to his fl ock, the church.

c h a p t e r 1 7

Continuing the Pauline Tradition 2 Thessalonians, Colossians, Ephesians, and the Pastoral Epistles

Stand fi rm . . . and hold fast to the traditions which you have learned from us by word or letter. 2 Thessalonians 2:15

Keep before you an outline of the sound teaching which you heard from me. . . . Guard the treasure [apostolic tradition] put into our charge. 2 Timothy 1:13–14

Key Topics/Themes Paul’s continuing infl uence on the church was so great after his death that various Pauline disciples composed letters in his name and spirit, claiming his authority to settle new issues besetting the Christian community. Whereas a minority of scholars defend Pauline authorship of 2 Thessalonians and Colossians, a large majority are certain that he did not write Ephesians, 1 or 2 Timothy, or Titus. Repeating themes from Paul’s genuine letter to the Thessalonians, 2 Thessalonians reinterprets Paul’s original eschatology, asserting that a number of traditional apocalyptic “signs” must precede the eschaton . In Colossians, a close Pauline disciple emphasizes Jesus’ identifi cation with the cosmic

power and wisdom by and for which the universe was created. The divine “secret” is revealed as Christ’s Spirit dwelling in the believer. A deutero – Pauline composition, Ephesians contains ideas similar to those in Colossians, revising and updating Pauline concepts about God’s universal plan of salvation for both Jews and Gentiles and about believers’ spiritual warfare with supernatural evil. Writing to Timothy and Titus as symbols of a new generation of Christians, an anonymous disciple (known as the Pastor) warns his readers against false teachings (heresy). He urges them to adhere strictly to the original apostolic traditions, supported by the Hebrew Bible and the church.

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Most scholars today view several books in the New Testament as pseudonymous, the productions of unknown Christians who ad- opted the Jewish literary convention of writing under an assumed identity. Scholars question the authenticity of not only six of the Pauline letters but also of the seven catholic epistles, documents ascribed to the “pillars” of the Jerusalem church whom Paul mentions in Galatians: James, John, and Peter, as well as the letter of Jude, James’s putative brother (Gal. 2:9; see Chapter 18). In wrestling with the problem of pseudonymity in the early church, many scholars assume that pseudony- mous authors wrote not to deceive but to per- petuate the thoughts of an apostle, to address later situations in the Christian community as they believed Peter or Paul would have if he were still alive. According to a common view, twenty-fi rst century principles about the integ- rity of authorship were irrelevant in the Jewish and Greco-Roman worlds. In this view, ancient society tended to tolerate the practice of pseudonymity , a custom in which disciples of great thinkers were free to compose works in their respective masters’ names. Other scholars strongly disagree, pointing out that what little evidence we have of the early church’s recorded attitude toward pseudony- mous writing does not support the notion that it was tolerated. When a short missive purporting to be Paul’s third letter to the Corinthians ap- peared, probably in the latter half of the second century ce , a few Christian groups apparently

According to tradition, Paul wrote 2 Thessa- lonians shortly after his fi rst letter to believers at Thessalonica, and Ephesians and Colossians while imprisoned in Rome. After being re- leased, he traveled to Crete, only to be thrown again in prison a second time (2 Tim.). During this second and fi nal incarceration, the apostle supposedly composed these farewell letters to  his trusted associates, Timothy and Titus, young men who represent a new generation of Christian leadership. Since the eighteenth century, however, scholars have increasingly doubted Paul’s responsibility for either Ephesians or the pasto- rals. More recently, they have also suspected that both 2 Thessalonians and Colossians are the work of later authors who adopted Paul’s persona. Detailed analyses of four of the six documents—Ephesians and the pastorals— strongly indicate that they were composed signifi cantly after Paul’s time.

The Problem of  Pseudonymity

The author of 2 Thessalonians tells his readers not to become overly excited if they receive a let- ter falsely bearing Paul’s name, indicating that the practice of circulating forged documents purportedly by apostolic writers had already be- gun (2 Thess . 2:1–3). Known as pseudonymity , the practice of creating new works in the name of a famous deceased author was widespread in both Hellenistic Judaism and early Christianity. From about 200 bce to 200 ce , Jewish writers produced a host of books ascribed to such re- vered biblical fi gures as Daniel, Enoch, Noah, David, Solomon, Isaiah, Ezra, and Moses. Some pseudonymous works, such as the Book of Daniel, were accepted into the Hebrew Bible canon; others, such as 1 Enoch (quoted as scrip- ture in the canonical letter of Jude), were not. Still others, including the Wisdom of Solomon, Baruch, and the apocalyptic 2 Esdras , were re- garded as deuterocanonical , part of the Old Testament’s “second canon.”

Disputed and Pseudonymous Letters

Authorship, date, and place of composition of the disputed and pseudonymous letters are unknown. If 2 Thessalonians and Colossians are by Paul, the former was written about 50 ce and the latter perhaps a decade later. Ephesians, which incorporates ideas from some genuine Pauline letters, may have originated about 90  ce. The pastoral epistles were probably composed during the early decades of the second century ce by a Pauline disciple eager to use the apostle’s legacy to enforce church tradition and organizational structure.

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hearing for their views that only a letter by Paul, Peter, or James could command. Some Pauline disciples, perhaps even some who were listed as coauthors in the genuine letters, may have wished, after Paul’s death, to address problems as they believed Paul would have. The fact that the histor- ical Paul usually employed a secretary or amanu- ensis to whom he dictated his thoughts—and that in the ancient world an amanuensis supposedly rephrased dictation in his own style—further complicates the problem of authorship. Scholars defending the authenticity of disputed letters, such as 2 Thessalonians, Colossians, or 1 Peter, tend to emphasize the roles that different secre- taries played in shaping these documents. Other critics suggest that pseudonymous authors may have incorporated fragments of otherwise un- known letters that Paul or P eter actually com- posed. As the readings for this chapter and the next indicate, scholarly speculation about plausi- ble theories of authorship, genuine and pseu- donymous, abounds. In studying the literature dubiously attributed to Paul or fellow leaders of the early church, readers will exercise their own judgments about authenticity. Whatever their degree of skepticism, they may conclude that Colossians is worthy of the apostle or that, if Paul wrote the Pastorals, they are a disappointing end to a brilliant writing career.

Second Letter to the Thessalonians

An increasing number of scholars are skeptical about the genuineness of 2 Thessalonians. If Paul actually composed it, why does he repeat— almost verbatim—so much of what he had already just written to the same recipients? More seriously, why does the author present an escha- tology so different from that presented in the fi rst letter? In 1 Thessalonians, the Parousia will occur stealthily, “like a thief in the night.” In 2 Thessalonians, a number of apocalyptic “signs” will fi rst advertise its arrival. The interposing of

accepted it. By insisting that the resurrection was  a bodily phenomenon, 3 Corinthians was useful in combating the Gnostics, who deni- grated all forms of material existence. The church as a whole, however, denounced the work as a forgery and removed from office the bishop who confessed to writing it. Tertullian , a church leader of the late second and early third centuries ce, claimed that the author of the spu- rious Acts of Paul and Thecla , when discovered, was similarly stripped of his position. (See the discussion of the Paul and Thecla narrative in Chapter 20 .) Whereas some scholars believe that no work suspected of being pseudonymous would have been admitted to the canon, others argue that in the late fi rst century and early de- cades of the second, documents attributed to Paul or other apostles— provided that they were theologically consistent with a celebrated lead- er’s known ideas—could be assimilated into Christian Scripture. How believers react to the claim that a number of books in the New Testament were written by someone other than their ostensible authors typically depends on a reader’s concept of bib lical authority. For some people, the pro- posal that unknown Christians falsely assumed Paul’s identity is ethically unacceptable on the grounds that such forgeries could not become part of the Bible. Other believers may ask if the value of a disputed or pseudonymous book is based on its traditional link to the “apostolic” generation. Is it “apostolic” authorship only that justifi es a document’s place in the New Testament canon? Or is it a book’s ethical and theological content that makes it valuable, re- gardless of who wrote it? Perhaps most import- ant, if a particular writing is a forgery—a work falsely claiming Paul, Peter, or James as its author—does that authorial deception invali- date its message, especially if its contents are useful to the Christian life? (See Bart Ehrman in “Recommended Reading.”) We can only speculate about the motives that inspired pseudonymous Christian writers, but some may have wished to obtain a respectful

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must take place before the Second Coming can occur. The writer achieves this delicate balance partly  by insisting on a rational and practical approach to life during the unknown interim between his writing and the Parousia . In introducing his apocalyptic theme, the au- thor invokes a vivid image of the Final Judgment to imprint its imminent reality on his readers’ consciousness. He paraphrases images from the Hebrew prophets to imply that persons now per- secuting Christians will soon suffer God’s wrath. Christ will be revealed from heaven amid blazing fire, overthrowing those who disobey Jesus’ gospel or fail to honor the one God (1:1–12). Having assured the Thessalonians that their present opponents will be punished at Jesus’ re- turn, Paul (or a disciple) now admonishes them not to assume that the punishment will happen immediately. Believers are not to run wild over some visionary’s claim that the End is already here. Individual prophetic revelations declaring that Jesus is now invisibly present were appar- ently strengthened when a letter—supposedly from Paul—conveyed the same or a similar mes- sage. (This pseudo-Pauline letter reveals that the practice of composing letters in Paul’s name be- gan very early in Christian history.) Speculations founded on private revelations or forged letters, the apostle points out, are doomed to disappoint those who fall for them (2:1–3).

Traditional (Non-Pauline?) Signs of the End

As mentioned previously, one of the strongest arguments against Paul’s authorship of 2 Thessalonians is the letter’s presentation of eschatological events that presage the End. Although the writer argues for the Parousia’s imminence (1:6–10), he also insists that the fi nal day cannot arrive until certain developments characteristic of Jewish apocalyptic thought have  occurred. At this point, 2 Thessalonians reverts to the cryptic and veiled language of apocalyptic discourse, referring to mysterious personages and events that may have been

these mysterious events between the writer’s time and that of the Parousia has the effect of placing the eschaton further into the future—unlike in 1 Thessalonians, where the End is extremely close. Scholars defending Pauline authorship advance several theories to explain the writer’s apparent change of attitude toward the Parousia . In the fi rst letter, Paul underscores the tension between the shortness of time the world has left and the necessity of believers’ vigilance and eth- ical purity as they await the Second Coming. In the second missive, Paul writes to correct the Thessalonians’ misconceptions about or mis- uses of his earlier emphasis on the nearness of End time. If Paul is in fact the author, he probably wrote 2 Thessalonians within a few months of his earlier letter. Some converts, claiming that “the Day of the Lord is already here” (2:2), were upsetting others with their otherworldly enthu- siasms. In their state of apocalyptic fervor, some even scorned everyday occupations and refused to work or support themselves. It is possible that  the visionary Spirit of prophecy that Paul encouraged the Thessalonians to cultivate (1  Thess . 5:19–22) had come back to haunt him. Empowered by private revelations, a few Christian prophets may have interpreted the Spirit’s presence—made possible by Jesus’ resur- rection and ascension to heaven—as a mystical fulfillment of the Parousia . According to this belief in presently realized eschatology, the Lord’s Day is now. Paul, however, consistently emphasizes that Jesus’ resurrection and the Spirit’s coming are only the fi rst stage in God’s plan of cosmic renewal. God’s purpose can be completed only at the apocalyptic End of history.

Placing the Second Coming in Perspective

In 2 Thessalonians, Paul (or some other writer building on his thought) takes on the diffi cult task of urging Christians to be ever alert and prepared for the Lord’s return and at the same  time to remember that certain events

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the Messiah, the unnamed satanic dupe func- tions as an anti-Christ (2:3–12). The writer’s language is specifi c enough to arouse speculation about the identities of the enigmatic “wicked man” and the “Restrainer” who at the time of writing kept the anti-Christ in check. It is also vague enough to preclude con- necting any known historical fi gures with these eschatological roles. In typical apocalyptic fash- ion, the fi gures are mythic archetypes that be- long to a realm beyond the reach of historical investigation.

A Disputed Letter to the Colossians

If Paul is the author of Colossians, as a large minority of scholars believe, he had not yet vis- ited the city when he wrote this theologically important letter. A small town in the Roman province of Asia, Colossae was located about 100 miles east of Ephesus, the provincial capital (see Figure 16.1). Epaphras , one of Paul’s mis- sionary associates, had apparently founded the church a short time prior to Paul’s writing (1:7). If genuine, Colossians was probably com- posed at about the same time as Philemon, to which it is closely related. In both letters, Paul writes from prison, including his friend Timothy in the salutation (1:1) and adding greetings from many of the same persons—such as Onesimus , Archippus , Aristarchus , Epaphras , Mark, and Luke—cited in the earlier missive (4:9–18). If Philemon’s was the house church at Colossae , it is strange that Paul does not men- tion him, but his absence from the letter does not discredit Pauline authorship.

Purpose and Organization

Although it was not one of his churches, Paul (or one of his later disciples) writes to the Colossae congregation to correct some false teachings prevalent there. These beliefs appar- ently involved cults that gave undue honor to

understood by the letter’s recipients but that are  largely incomprehensible to contemporary readers. The End cannot come before the fi nal rebellion against God’s rule, when evil is re- vealed in human form as a demonic enemy who desecrates the Temple and claims divinity for himself. In this passage, Paul’s terminology re- sembles that contained in the Book of Daniel, an apocalyptic work denouncing Antiochus IV, a Greek-Syrian king who polluted the Jerusalem Temple and tried to destroy the Jewish religion (see Chapter 5). Some commentators suggest that Paul re- gards the Roman emperor, whose near-absolute power gave him virtually unlimited potential for infl icting evil on humankind, as a latter-day counterpart of Antiochus. Paul’s explicitly stated view of the Roman government, however, is positive (Rom. 13), so readers must look else- where to identify the doomed fi gure. Reminding the Thessalonians that he had previously informed them orally of these apoca- lyptic developments, Paul states that the myste- rious enemy’s identity will not be disclosed until the appointed time. This is an allusion to the typically apocalyptic belief that all history is pre- destined: Events cannot occur before their divinely predetermined hour. Evil forces are already at work, however, secretly gathering strength until the unidentifi ed “Restrainer” dis- appears, allowing the evil personage to reveal himself.

Apocalyptic Dualism In this passage, the writer paints a typically apocalyptic worldview, a moral dualism in which the opposing powers of good and evil have their respective agents at work on earth. The enemy fi gure is Satan’s agent; his opposite is Christ. As Jesus is God’s representa- tive working in human history, so the wicked rebel is the devil’s tool. Operating on a cosmic scope, the confl ict between good and evil cul- minates in Christ’s victory over his enemy, who has deceived the mass of humanity into believ- ing the “lie.” (This is, perhaps, the false belief that any being other than God is the source of humanity’s ultimate welfare.) An evil parody of

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all things were created through him and for him.

He is before all things, and in him all things hold together.

He is the head of the body, the church; He is the beginning, the fi rst-born from the

dead, that in everything he might be preeminent.

For in him all the fullness of God was pleased to dwell,

and through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven,

making peace by the blood of his cross.

(1:15–20, Revised Standard Version)

Like the prologue to John’s Gospel, this beauti- ful poem is modeled on biblical and Hellenistic- Jewish concepts of divine Wisdom ( Prov . 8:22–31; Ecclus . 24:1–22; see also the discussion of John’s  usage of Logos [Word] in Chapter 10). Hellenistic Jews had created a rich lore of specu- lative thought in which God’s chief attribute, his infi nite Wisdom, is the source of all creation and the means by which he communicates his purpose to humanity. Many historians believe that early Christian thinkers adopted these ready-made wisdom traditions and applied them to Jesus. Like Philippians 2, the Colossians hymn is traditionally seen as proclaiming Jesus’ heav- enly preexistence and his personal role as mediator in creation. More recently, many scholars— recognizing the hymn’s use of wis- dom language—view it as a declaration that the same divine Presence and Power that created the Cosmos now operates in the glorifi ed Christ. The personifi ed Wisdom whom God employed as his agent in fashioning the universe is now fully revealed in Christ, the agent through whom God redeems his human creation. The phrase “image [ eikon ] of the invisible God” (1:15) may correspond to the phrase “form [ morphes ] of God” that Paul used in Philippians (2:6). In both cases, the term echoes the words of Genesis 1, in which God creates the fi rst human beings in his own “image” (Gen. 1:26–27). (The writer describes the Colossians

angels or other invisible spirits inhabiting the universe. Some Colossians may have attempted to worship beings that the angels themselves worshiped. Paul refutes these “hollow and delu- sive” notions by emphasizing Christ’s unique- ness and supremacy. Christ alone is the channel to spiritual reality; lesser spirit beings are merely his “captives.” The author’s purpose is to make sure that the Colossians clearly recognize who Christ re- ally is. He emphasizes two principal themes: (1) Christ is supreme because God’s power now manifested in him was the same power that cre- ated the entire universe, including those invisi- ble entities the false teachers mistakenly worship; and (2) when they realize Christ’s supremacy and experience his indwelling Spirit, the Colossians are initiated into his mystery cult, vol- untarily harmonizing their lives with the cosmic unity he embodies.

Christ—The Source of Cosmic Unity

In the opinion of some analysts, both the complex nature of the false teachings, which seem to blend Greco-Roman and marginally Jewish ideas into a Gnostic synthesis, and the  Christology of Colossians seem too “ad- vanced” for the letter to have originated in Paul’s day. Other critics point out that, if the letter was written late in Paul’s career to meet a situation signifi cantly different from others he had earlier encountered, it could well have stimulated the apostle to produce a more fully developed expression of his views about Christ’s nature and function.

Jesus as the Mediator of Creation As in the sec- ond chapter of Philippians, the author seems to adapt an older Christian hymn to illustrate his vision of the exalted Jesus’ cosmic role:

He is the image of the invisible god, the fi rst- born of all creation;

for in him all things were created, in heaven and on earth, visible and invisi- ble, whether thrones or dominions or principalities or authorities,

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social class, he omits the unity of the sexes that Paul included in Galatians 3:28 (2:20–3:11). As with many Greco-Roman mystery cults, initia- tion into Christ is a union of social and reli- gious equality.

Obligations of Initiation Consistent with Paul’s custom, the author concludes by underlining the ethical implications of his theology. Be- cause Christians experience the indwelling Christ, they must live exceptionally pure and upright lives. The list of vices (3:5–9) and virtues (3:12–25) is typical of other Hellenistic teachers of ethics, but the writer adds a distinctively Christian note: Believers behave well because they are being re-created in Christ’s nature and “image” (3:10).

Letter to the Ephesians

The Case of Ephesians

Whereas Paul’s authorship of Colossians is se- riously doubted, the claim that he wrote Ephesians is widely denied. Although it closely resembles Colossians (the style and theology of which also seem untypical of Paul), Ephesians differs from the undisputed Pauline letters in (1) vocabulary (containing over ninety words not found elsewhere in Paul’s writings), (2) liter- ary style (written in extremely long, convoluted sentences, in contrast to Paul’s usually direct, forceful statements), and (3) theology (lack- ing typically Pauline doctrines such as justifi- cation by faith and the nearness of Christ’s return). Despite its similarity to Colossians (75 of Ephesians’ 155 verses parallel passages in Colossians), it presents a different view of the sacred “secret” or “mystery” revealed in Christ. In Colossians, God’s long-kept secret is Christ’s mystical union with his followers (Col. 1:27), but in Ephesians, it is the union of Jew and Gentile in one church (Eph. 3:6). More than any other disputed letter (ex- cept those to Timothy and Titus), Ephesians

as also bearing the divine “image” [3:10].) Rather than asserting that the prehuman Jesus was literally present at creation, the hymn may affi rm that he is the ultimate goal toward which God’s world trends. Whatever Christology he advances, the writer’s main purpose is to demonstrate Christ’s present superiority to all rival cosmic beings. The “thrones, sovereignties, authorities and powers” mentioned (1:16) probably represent the Jewish hierarchy of angels. Christ’s perfect obedience, vindicating God’s image in human- ity, and his ascension to heaven have rendered these lesser beings irrelevant and powerless. By his triumph, Christ leads them captive as a Roman emperor leads a public procession of conquered enemies (2:9–15). Moving from Christ’s supremacy to his own role in the divine plan, Paul states that his task is to deliver God’s message of reconciliation. He is the agent chosen to reveal the divine “ secret hidden for long ages”—the glorified Christ dwelling in the believer, spiritually reunit- ing the Christian with God. Christians thus form Christ’s visible body, here identifi ed with the church (1:21–2:8).

The Mystical Initiation into Christ Employing the rather obscure language of Greek mystery religions (see Chapter 4), Paul compares the Christian’s baptism to a vicarious experience of Christ’s death and resurrection (2:12, 20; 3:1). It is also the Christian equivalent of circum- cision, the ritual sign that identifies one as belonging to God’s people, and the rite of ini- tiation into Christ’s “body” (2:12–14). Raised to new life, initiated believers are liberated from religious obligations sponsored by those lesser spirits who transmitted the Torah revela- tion to Moses. Empowered by Christ’s Spirit, the Colos- sians should not be intimidated by self-styled authorities who mortify the body and piously forbid partaking of certain food and drink, for Christ’s death ended all such legal discrimina- tions. Although the author declares the equal- ity of all believers, regardless of nationality or

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