Identify the variables being measured in each survey and explain which measure of central tendency would be used to evaluate them. Write the result

RUBRIC

– Official Assignment Rubric – Official Assignment Rubric

Criteria Ratings Pt s

This criterion is linked to a Learnin g Outcom e Professi onalism Concept Applicat ion

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20 pt s

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20 pt s

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20 pt s

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20 pt s

Total Points: 100

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20 pt s

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of questions to gather information from respondents (Mcleod, 2018). The term questionnaire usually means a form containing a set of pre- determined questions used for collecting information (data) from and about people as part of a survey (Scott & Mazhindu, 2014).

Questionnaires can be used in various types of research, such as descriptive, comparative, and attitudinal. There are many different types of questionnaires. The type of questionnaire used will depend on the research question being asked. Questionnaires can be used to produce both qualitative and quantitative data (Scott & Mazhindu, 2014).

Often a questionnaire uses both open and closed questions to collect data. This is beneficial because both quantitative and qualitative data can be obtained (Mcleod, 2018). 

Study I:  Questionnaire “Prevaccination Checklist for COVID-19 Vaccines” This study aims to review the results from the prevaccination checklist for COVID-19 Vaccines in the Primary Care Setting. A small sample of the subject was selected to evaluate the understanding of the questions. Not all the questions were analyzed, and the privacy of participants was kept safe.

“Prevaccination Checklist for COVID-19 Vaccines”

For vaccine recipients:  Name                                                           Age

The following questions will help us determine if there is any reason you should not get the COVID-19 vaccine today.

If you answer "yes" to any question, it does not necessarily mean you should not be vaccinated. It just means additional

 questions may be asked. If a question is not straightforward, please ask your healthcare provider to explain it.

1. Are you feeling sick today?

        ___   Yes __ No  ___Don't know

2. Have you ever received a dose of the COVID-19 vaccine?

         ___   Yes __ No ___Don't know

• If yes, which vaccine product did you receive? (mark)

. Pfizer-BioNTech. Moderna. Janssen (Johnson & Johnson)  Another Product

• Have you received a complete COVID-19 vaccine series

(i.e., one does Janssen or two doses of an mRNA vaccine [Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna])?

         ___   Yes __ No ___Don't know

• Did you bring your vaccination record card or other documentation?

         ___   Yes __ No ___Don't know

Source: (CDC, 2021)

Table 1. The data from the Vaccine questionnaire (Selected items)

Study 2: Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) The second study will use the PHQ-9 self-administered version. The PHQ-9 is the depression module, which scores each of the nine DSM-IV criteria as "0" (not at all) to "3" (nearly every day). The PHQ-9 has been validated for use in primary care (Sun et al., 2020).

Participa nt Age

Are you feeling sick today?

Have you ever received a dose of the COVID- 19 vaccine?

Have you ever had an allergic reaction ?

Have you ever had an allergic reaction to another vaccine (other than the

J.L. 55 YES NO NO NO A.S. 66 NO YES NO NO K.W 32 NO NO NO NO C.H 45 NO YES YES NO R.Y. 54 NO NO NO NO W.D. 71 NO YES NO NO

It was applied in a sample size of 15 adult patients seen at Louisiana Well Medical Center (LWMC) affected by a severe weather event and with depression symptoms.

Instruction: Over the last two weeks, how often have you been bothered by any of the following problems?

Table 2: Primary data results from surveys

Questions number (1 to 9) and ScorePati

ent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Scor

e1 0 1 3 0 2 2 3 3 0 14 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 0 15 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 0 16 4 3 3 3 3 3 0 3 1 19

5 a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 27 7 3 3 3 2 0 2 1 0 2 16 8 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 1 0 15 9 2 3 3 3 1 1 3 2 0 18

10 0 2 2 1 0 1 2 1 0 9 11 2 2 0 0 3 3 0 0 2 12 12 1 2 3 1 1 1 3 1 0 13

Missing Information (Score of 5–9 is classified as mild depression; 10–14 as moderate depression; 15–19 as moderately severe depression; ≥ 20 as severe depression)

1. Descriptive Statistics ◦ How are data described and summarized? ◦ What are measures of central tendency and

dispersion? ◦ How are measures of central tendency and dispersion

calculated? ◦ Which measure of central tendency to use and when? ◦ How to calculate an odds ratio?

Descriptive Statistics: Descriptive statistics is the term given to analyzing data that summarize and organize characteristics of a data set. A data set is a collection of responses or observations from a sample or entire population. (Bhandari, 2020). Descriptive statistics are used in many aspects of health care; they are, in fact, the most common type of statistic. Descriptive statistics are used to manage, monitor, and evaluate health services and those working within those services. This is why understanding descriptive statistics is essential for those who work in a health setting (Scott & Mazhindu, 2014).

How are data described and summarized?

13 3 3 2 1 1 3 2 3 0 18 14 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 4 15 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 0 0 12

There are three main types of summarized descriptive statistics:

• The distribution concerns the frequency of each value. Frequency distribution

A data set is made up of a distribution of values or scores. In tables or graphs, you can summarize the frequency of every possible value of a variable in numbers or percentages.

• The central tendency concerns the averages of the values. Measures of central tendency estimate the center, or average, of a data set. The mean, median, and mode are three ways of finding the average.

Mean: The sum of all values divided by the number of values and is the most popular response or value in the data set.

Median: The value in the exact middle of the data set when ordered from low to high.

Mode: The value that appears the most in a data set.

• The variability or dispersion concerns how spread out the values are.

Variability describes how far apart data points lie from each other and the center of a distribution. Along with measures of central tendency, measures of variability give a descriptive statistic that summarizes the data.

Variability is also referred to as spread, scatter, or dispersion. It is most commonly measured with:

•     Range: the difference between the highest and lowest values

•     Interquartile range: the range of the middle half of a distribution

•     Standard deviation: average distance from the mean

•     Variance: average of squared distances from the mean

Which Measure of Central Tendency to Use and When? Means are the most sensitive. The mean considers all the values of each case in the distribution, as described above, and it is arithmetically based so that it can be used in further calculations. However, it is used on interval or ratio levels of measurement data and is easily distorted by outliers.

The median, which does not take into account the values of the cases, is unaffected by outliers and is suitable for ordinal/ranked data. Where the mean is distorted by the presence of outliers, the median should be used.

How to Calculate an Odds Ratio? Odds Ratio

According to Scott & Mazhindu, (2014)

Odds are the chance (probability) of something happening expressed as a proportion. The odds of something happening can be calculated as the number of times that something happened divided by the number of times it didn't if given the opportunity. The chance of you tripping on a particular paving slab could be estimated from the number of times individuals have tripped on that paving slab while walking over it divided by the number of non-trips (p. 49).

An odds ratio (OR) measures the association between a specific property A and a second property B in a population and is expressed as A : B (Glen., 2021).

References

Bhandari, P. (2020). Descriptive statistics, definitions, types, examples. Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/descriptive- statistics/

Links to an external site. CDC. (2022). Prevaccination checklist for COVID-19 vaccines for vaccine recipients.  https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/covid-19/ downloads/pre-vaccination-

Links to an external site. screening-form.pdf

Links to an external site. Glen., S. (2021). Odds ratio calculation and interpretation. Statistics how to. https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and- statistics/probability-main-

Links to an external site. index/odds-ratio/

Links to an external site. Mcleod, S. (2018). Questionnaire: definition, examples, design, and types. Simplypsychology.org; Simply Psychology. https:// www.simplypsychology.org/questionnaires.html

Links to an external site. Scott, I., & Mazhindu, D. (2014). Statistics for healthcare professionals: an introduction. Sage.

Spirer, H., Spirer, L., & Jaffe, A. J. (1998). Misused statistics. (2nd ed.). CRC Press.

Sun, Y., Fu, Z., Bo, Q., Mao, Z., Ma, X., & Wang, C. (2020). The reliability and validity of PHQ-9 in patients with major depressive disorder in a psychiatric hospital. BMC Psychiatry, 20(1). https:// doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02885-6

Links to an external site. Weatherburn, D. (2011). Uses and abuses of crime statistics. Crime and justice bulletin: Contemporary issues in crime and justice, NSW bureau of crime statistics and research, 153, 1 – 16.

Module 2 Displaying Data

HESC 700 Applied Biostatistics

▪ The two most common forms of data display are tables and graphs.

▪ The aim: to summarize and present the data in a manner that is

easy to understand and take in.

Displaying Data

▪ Tables are visual displays composed of columns and rows in which numbers, text, or a combination of numbers and text are presented.

▪ Parts of a table

▪ Title number and title

▪ Divider rules

▪ Spanner heads

▪ Stub heads

▪ Column heads

▪ Row titles

▪ Cells

▪ Footnotes

Tables

▪ Frequency table: It is a table with two columns.

▪ One column lists the categories, and another for the frequencies

with which the items in the categories occur (how many items fit into

each category).

▪ Frequency distributions of numerical variables can be displayed in a

table, a histogram chart, or a frequency polygon chart.

▪ Concerning discrete variables, it is possible to present the number

of observations according to the different values found in the study

(Duquia et al., 2014).

Frequency Tables

Score Classification Frequency

DEPRESSION GRADE NUMBER PERCENTAGE

MILD 2 14.3

MODERATE 4 28.6

MODERATE SEVERE 7 50.0

SEVERE 1 7.1

TOTAL 14 100.0

▪ There are a variety of graph types. The main types you will see are

frequency charts, histograms, bar charts, pie charts, scatter graphs,

and line graphs.

Graph

GRAPH IS ANOTHER WAY TO

REPRESENT DATA. GRAPHS ARE

USED TO DISPLAY DATA

BECAUSE IT IS EASIER TO SEE

TRENDS IN THE DATA WHEN IT IS

DISPLAYED VISUALLY COMPARED

TO WHEN IT IS DISPLAYED

NUMERICALLY IN A TABLE.

COMPLICATED DATA CAN OFTEN

BE DISPLAYED AND

INTERPRETED MORE EASILY IN A

GRAPH FORMAT THAN IN A DATA

TABLE (BARTEE ET AL., 2017).

The Appropriate Way of Displaying Data Depends

on the Objectives:

Comparison: Use comparison charts to compare one or more datasets.

Relationship: This type of charts are used to show a connection or correlation between two or more variables.

Composition: For this kind of objective, the charts are used to display parts of a whole and change over time.

Distribution: The charts are used to show how variables are distributed over time, helping identify outliers and trends.

Lies, Damned Lies and Statistics

Statistics are extensively used in research studies, organizations, media, and politics.

It is vital to know the different types of ways statistics can be misused so that you can identify them and do not make decisions based on biased or incorrect data (Wendy, 2021).

Reasons for Statistics Misleading

Poor research design

▪ A group of issues that should

be known to assure a good

interpretation of statistical

data to avoid misleading

statistical data.

How to Assure a Good Interpretation of Statistics

Data to Avoid Statistical Data Misleading

▪ Measures of central tendency.

▪ The meaningless ‘mean’.

▪ An average (the mean, median,

or mode for a set of numbers) is

useful as a single-parameter

characterization of a

quantitative variable.

▪ The percentage and proportion.

▪ Percentages are used to

express proportions. This is

especially important concerning

sample size; a researcher

should be wary when a

percentage is quoted without an

indication of the sample size.

▪ Relative and absolute risk.

▪ Percentages, proportions, probability, and ratios.

▪ Proportion refers to the number of items in a sub-category in relation to the total amount of the items in the main category, percentage are used to express proportions.

▪ Error of measurement.

o When there are two groups to compare, the difference between the two groups is potentially small, so you need to make sure that your measurement tool is accurate.

▪ Other statistics misleading uses are extrapolation beyond the reasonable and to the extreme, sampling, and display of data.

How to Avoid Being Misled by Poor Statistics

The source is a subject matter expert, not a statistics expert.

The source is a statistician, not a subject matter expert.

The subject being studied is not well defined.

Data quality is poor.

The mainstream media has limited expertise and mixed motives.

Review as many times as required the information contained in the module folder

(includes this presentation).

Read the reference material to clarify any questions.

Carry out all the activities according to the instructions.

Submit assignments on the indicated date through the educational

platform.

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theoretical summary of this week's topic!

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