How can instructional rubrics benefit students, and why are they described as an excellent way for students to receive feedback? ?2. How can educators ens

Ms. Leon, a middle school teacher in an inclusive classroom, and her students were confused. Ms. Leon was confused because her students’ work was far below her expectations for them. Ms. Leon’s students were confused because they did not understand what her expectations were. They were also frus- trated and disappointed by their grades.

After several family members spoke to her about their children’s grades, Ms. Leon decided to work with her students to develop a rubric to evaluate their per- formance on their next assignment, a

WebQuest entitled Culture Quest (Kelly, 2000; Lynch & Tennille, 2000; see box, “What Is a WebQuest?”). Ms. Leon had heard about WebQuest from colleagues in an Internet-based Listserv that pro- vides teachers with information and resources on using the Internet in class- rooms. She also examined several WebQuests and rubrics that were avail- able online.

The goal of the Culture Quest was for students to understand, explore, and research the culture and customs of groups in the United States by visiting teacher-designated Internet sites, inter- viewing individuals, gathering re- sources in the media center, and explor- ing software. Ms. Leon divided the class into groups, and each group was to select and study aspects of a culture (e.g., art, music, symbols, and famous people) and create a Web site. She wanted the students to include a title page with a table of contents, and three to five Web pages that describe two

aspects of the culture the group studied. Their Web sites also needed to include an author page containing student drawings and brief descriptions of the authors, links to Web resources, and a bibliography of resources used. The site was to include navigation buttons; appropriate backgrounds; graphics; and readable, edited text.

Before she assigned students to the Culture Quest project, Ms. Leon worked with them to create a rubric to evaluate the Web sites they would develop. First, she gave them an example of an exem- plary Web site developed by a previous class, asked them to examine it, and dis- cussed with them the features of the site that made it outstanding. Next, she gave them a Web site that she considered inadequate and discussed with them the features of the site that were lacking. Together, Ms. Leon and her students listed the ways in which the two Web sites differed, and grouped them into

8 ■ COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

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Creating Instructional Rubrics

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Catharine R. Whittaker • Spencer J. Salend • Devon Duhaney

Accessing the Curriculum

Students’ Web sites were to include navigation buttons; appropriate

backgrounds; graphics; and readable, edited text.

three categories: content, design, and literacy skills.

Next, Ms. Leon divided the class into groups. She asked each group to create a set of indicators addressing one of the categories, and a scale for judging each indicator in that category, using four levels of performance. Each group then presented their scale to the class and revised it based on the feedback they received from their classmates.

Ms. Leon then took the groups’ four levels of performance and produced a rubric, which she reviewed with the whole class. She asked the groups to examine the two Web sites a second time using the rubric, and discussed how they would evaluate the Web sites. Confident that her students understood her expectations and how to use the rubric, she assigned students to their Culture Quest groups, and told them she would evaluate their Web sites using the rubric. As students completed drafts of sections of their Web sites, Ms. Leon and peer reviewers gave them feedback, using the rubric. When groups handed in their final products, confusion and frustration were replaced by under- standing and satisfaction because Ms. Leon and her students understood each other’s expectations and were satisfied with their products and their grades.

What Do Rubrics Do? Like Ms. Leon, many teachers are seek- ing ways to improve student assessment and align their curriculum with state and national standards. One strategy that teachers like Ms. Leon are benefit- ing from is the use of instructional rubrics that specify the qualities associ- ated with different levels of proficiency for evaluating student assignments (McTighe, 1997; Salend, 2001). Educators using instructional rubrics

assess process, performance, and progress by delineating the various cat- egories associated with assessment tasks and learning activities, the differ- ent levels of performance, and the indi- cators describing each level and then rating student performance on products that show their learning. (See Figure 1, page 10, for examples of rubric cate- gories, levels of performance, and indi- cators.)

Rubrics also may be used as part of student portfolios to help students, teachers, and family members reflect on student work, identify process and product skills mastered and not mas- tered, and make suggestions to guide instruction. Because individualized edu- cation program (IEP) goals should include benchmarks that relate to stu- dents’ progress within the general edu- cation curriculum, instructional rubrics also can be used to facilitate the IEP process.

What Are the Different Kinds of Rubrics? Teachers can choose to use holistic or analytic rubrics. Holistic rubrics require

teachers to select one level of perform- ance or rating that best represents the quality of the learning product and are used most frequently with comprehen- sive assessments related to district, state, or national standards. Conversely, analytic rubrics have several categories of indicators, which are rated separate- ly, allowing teachers to differentiate lev- els of performance within and among the categories. Analytic rubrics typically are used to provide specific feedback to students to support their learning.

Benefits to Students

The use of instructional rubrics can pro- mote learning and benefit students, teachers, and family members (Andrade, 2000; Schirmer, Bailey, & Fitzgerald, 1999). Instructional rubrics can benefit students by helping them do the following: • Understand the qualities associated

with a specific task or assignment. • Develop their critical-thinking skills. • Self-assess their work.

Rubrics also serve as an excellent way for students to receive informative feedback regarding their learning

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ■ NOV/DEC 2001 ■ 9

Instructional rubrics specify the qualities associated with different levels of

proficiency for evaluating student assignments.

What Is a WebQuest?

One type of instructional activity that is becoming more common in classrooms is a WebQuest. A WebQuest is a structured, inquiry-oriented activity in which some or all of the information that learners interact with comes from resources on the Internet or videoconferencing (Dodge, 1997). A well-designed WebQuest contains the following: • An introduction. • A task. • A set of information sources. • A process for accomplishing the task. • A method for organizing the information acquired. • An evaluation tool. • A conclusion.

WebQuests are almost always group activities and sometimes roles (e.g., archaeologist, historian, reporter) are given to learners. They may be designed around a single discipline or can be interdisciplinary and can be easily related to state standards or general education curricula benchmarks. WebQuests may be short term, requiring one to three class periods, or longer term, taking a week to a month.

A critical aspect of a WebQuest for teachers and students is the evaluation tool. Often the product is a Web site (using Netscape Composer, HyperStudio or another page editor) or PowerPoint presentation. Many examples of WebQuests are available online (www.coe.west.asu.edu) and many use rubrics as an evaluation tool.

strengths and needs, which can aid them in assessing and directing their learning (Stanford & Siders, 2001).

Benefits to Teachers

• As Ms. Leon realized, rubrics can help teachers

• Clarify and communicate their expec- tations.

• Link assessment and instruction. • Establish standards of excellence. • Evaluate and grade their students’

work. Because rubrics can make grading

more objective and consistent, they can

assist teachers in explaining their grad- ing of student work to family members. Since family members also can use rubrics to assist their children with assignments, sharing rubrics with fami- ly members can be a good way to com- municate with them and involve them in the learning process.

10 ■ COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

Figure 1. Product Rubric for Web Site

Guidelines for Using Rubrics In light of the growing use of rubrics and their benefits for teachers and stu- dents, this article presents guidelines that teachers can use to create rubrics with their students. Figure 1 shows a sample analytic, product-oriented rubric that Ms. Leon developed with her stu- dents using these guidelines.

Discuss with Others How Performance Is Assessed

Educators can begin to develop instruc- tional rubrics by collaborating with their colleagues to discuss how performance is assessed in their specific disciplines and on specific learning activities. Collaboration between general and spe- cial educators also can help link instruc- tional rubrics to students’ IEP goals. The following questions can guide the discussion: • What district, state, or national stan-

dards does this learning activity address?

• What IEP goals does the learning activity fulfill?

• How can this learning activity be dif- ferentiated to meet the strengths and needs of students (e.g., IEP goals) of the various students in the class?

• What factors should be considered when evaluating the learning activity?

• Is a rubric the best method to assess this learning activity? The Internet can be an excellent

vehicle for interacting with other profes- sionals; it offers resources that can assist educators in developing rubrics. The Internet provides access to a wide range of resources (e.g., databases, doc- uments, reports, and materials) from

around the world, as well as opportuni- ties to exchange information and ideas with colleagues. In addition, many state education departments maintain Web sites that offer access to state standards, curriculum materials, and sample rubrics. For example, Ms. Leon obtained information about rubrics through her participation in the Listserv K12ASSESS- L (http://www.ericae.net/k12assess/) sponsored by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation, which provides a forum for discussions on educational assessment issues in Grades K-12. She also visited several Web sites (e.g., http://www.expage.com/page/ techevalWebsites) that provided sample rubrics for evaluating technology-relat- ed projects (for additional resources, see box, “Web Sites on Rubrics”).

Examine Sample Assignments to Identify Exemplary Features

Next, teachers collect samples of the assignment that will be evaluated by the rubric. These samples should reflect a range of performance levels so that teachers and students can analyze them to identify the important features of the

learning activity that separate excellent, good, mediocre, and inadequate sam- ples.

For example, Ms. Leon used exam- ples of excellent and inadequate Web sites from her prior classes and asked her students to identify the features associated with effective and ineffective Web pages. The students recognized

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ■ NOV/DEC 2001 ■ 11

As part of student portfolios, rubrics help students, teachers, and

family members reflect on student work, identify

process and product skills mastered and not

mastered, and make suggestions to guide

instruction.

Web Sites on Rubrics

http://www.expage.com/page/lebeaurubrics Offers links to other sites with useful information on rubrics (introduction to rubrics, designing rubrics, sample rubrics, etc.).

http://www.school.discovery.com/schrockguide/assess.html Provides information on the creation and use of rubrics with additional resources, as well as examples of rubrics.

http://www.ericae.net/faqs/rubrics/scoring_rubrics.htm Contains definitions of scoring rubrics, and bibliographic and Internet resources on rubrics.

http://www.cesa8.k12.wi.us/tlcf/tips.htm Offers 10 tips for designing rubrics.

http://www.cotf.edu/ete/teacher/rubrics.html Offers guidelines for the development of rubrics.

http://www.gc.cc.fl.us/wwwroot/2000faculty/rubrics.htm Provides a definition and example of rubrics and links to other sites with related resources.

http://www.k-6educatorsca.about.com/aboutcanada/k-educatorsca/ cs/rubricbuilders/index.htm

Offers rubric builders for teachers. http://www.k-6educatorsca.about.com/aboutcanada/ canadateachers/cs/rubrics/index.htm

Offers links which lead to examples of rubrics that teachers at the elemen- tary level may find useful.

When students developed and used clear rubrics for

scoring their work, confusion and frustration

were replaced by understanding and

satisfaction.

that the most effective Web sites clearly stated their purpose, gave many exam- ples, were navigated easily, had appeal- ing and imaginative visuals, and were clearly and logically written. Identify Categories. At this point, it is helpful to examine and group the fea- tures to determine the major compo- nents of the assignment, and identify the categories the rubric will address. For example, Ms. Leon and her students identified the categories of content, design, and literacy skills. Students were able to list each indicator under one of these three categories. They dis- covered that visual literacy—the ability to understand and design the visual aspects of media such as layout, images, and navigation—is just as important as understanding the meaning of the text (Hobbs, 1997). Establishing categories also enables teachers and students to identify the additional indicators they might not have listed previously. When Ms. Leon’s class first listed indicators, they did not mention how many sources the Web site designers used. Later, how- ever, they realized that the assignment required that multiple sources be used and referenced. Determine Levels of Performance. To evaluate the quality of each feature in a category, teachers and students must establish levels of performance. Levels of performance are age-appropriate scales for rating students’ assignments that usually reflect three or four levels, although more levels are possible. Examples of wording that teachers have used include the following:

• No; no, but; yes, but; yes (Andrade, 2000).

• Below average, average, above average.

• Below expectations, acceptable, proficient, excellent (Finson & Ormsbee, 1998).

• Novice, apprentice, proficient, dis- tinguished.

• No attempt, beginning, emerging, mastery, advanced (Kleinert, Haig, Kearns, & Kennedy, 2000). Levels of performance also can be

phrased in student language, such as “awesome” for “excellent.” Teachers often choose to attach points (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4) to each level of performance to facilitate grading.

For example, for their rubric, Ms. Leon and her class chose the terms beginning, developing, accom- plished, and exemplary and assigned four points to the highest level.

Compose a Set of Indicators. After determining levels of performance, teachers and students develop indica- tors. Indicators are brief statements that describe the specific features that reflect various levels of performance with respect to the identified categories. They serve to define and provide examples of the important features associated with products that demonstrate student learning. A final list of indicators is developed by examining all proposed indicators, deleting irrelevant ones, combining those that overlap, and adding important ones that are missing.

First, Ms. Leon modeled the process by selecting a feature of one of the cate- gories and writing four indicators on the board. Then she guided a discussion by prompting students to identify subtle differences in another feature and asked them to list their own indicators. Next, she asked each of the groups of students to write indicators for one or more of the remaining features under each cate- gory.

Make Sure the Rubric Is Understandable, Feasible, Fair, Unbiased, Credible, and Individualized

After teachers and students have creat- ed a draft of the rubric, they should examine the rubric as a whole in light of the product they are going to create. The language of the rubric should include wording that students, family members, and other professionals can understand

and should be stated in positive terms. The indicators should be feasible, fair, unbiased, and credible.

For example, Ms. Leon’s students wanted to know exactly how many ref- erences and Web site pages were required for each level of performance; so Ms. Leon helped by providing specif- ic numbers in the indicators. If some indicators are more important than oth- ers, it might be necessary to weight var- ious rubric dimensions to reflect these differences. For example, some teachers assign more points to content than liter- acy skills, depending on the goals of the assignment and their connection to the learning standards.

Educators also can individualize rubrics to address the unique needs of students, such as their IEP goals. For example, if a student’s IEP contains an objective that paragraphs written by the student should include topic sentences, three supporting sentences, and a con- cluding sentence, these skills might be added to the rubric.

Teach and Encourage Students to Use the Rubric

Before starting the actual assignment, it is helpful to give the students the joint- ly designed rubric and use it to evaluate two or more assignments of varying quality. This enables students to solidi- fy in their minds those indicators they must include in the assignment and also determine if the rubric is workable. For example, Ms. Leon asked her students to look at different Web sites to see why one was more effective than the other, based on the rubric they had developed.

Once teachers and students finalize the rubric, teachers can encourage stu- dents to use the rubric to guide them in working on the assignment. Teachers can schedule time for peer and teacher conferences so students can refer to the rubric to reflect on their work, and iden- tify indicators that are not yet addressed in their assignment.

Teachers also can use the Internet as part of their efforts to communicate with students and families and support their use of the rubric. For example, rubrics and exemplary models can be posted on the Internet so that students and families can access them at their

12 ■ COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

A rubric’s indicators should be stated in positive terms,

and they should be feasible, fair, unbiased,

and credible.

convenience. Since some students and families may not have access to the Internet, alternative communication strategies also should be employed (Salend, 2001).

Evaluate Students’ Assignments Using the Rubric

When assignments are completed, teachers can use the rubrics in several ways. Teachers may use them to evalu- ate the assignment and assign group or individual grades based on the points accumulated. Teachers may ask the stu- dents to evaluate their own or others’ assignments based on the rubric to encourage peer and self-evaluation. Teachers also may assign a grade based on a combination of their ratings and that of the students.

Evaluate and Revise the Rubric

Rubrics must be continually evaluated and refined if they are to achieve their intended outcomes and be useful to all the audiences for which they are designed. Therefore, it is important to examine the rubric’s effect on students, teachers, and other relevant parties. Primarily, the effect of the rubric on stu- dent learning should be assessed by examining data related to student learn- ing, such as increased mastery of cur- riculum standards and IEP goals, changes in students’ grades, and improved performance on classroom- based activities and statewide exams.

Information from students, teachers, and family members also can be helpful in examining the overall effectiveness and efficiency of the rubric. For exam-

ple, students and family members can be asked to identify the ways in which the rubric aided and hindered perform- ance. Similarly, teachers can be asked to reflect on the effect of the rubric on the teaching and learning process—includ- ing its success as a tool for fostering stu- dent performance, assessing students’ strengths and learning needs, support- ing differentiated instruction, communi- cating with families, and evaluating and grading student work. Students, family members, and teachers also can provide information to validate successful aspects of the rubric process, as well as pinpoint procedures that need to be revised, and make recommendations for improving the rubric and the rubric process.

For example, after using the rubric shown in this article, Ms. Leon realized that although it evaluates the final prod- uct, it did not evaluate the process the students used to complete the assign- ment. As a result, she is working on adding a process category that evaluates indicators that relate to group coopera- tion skills and timelines of work com- pletion.

Final Thoughts As schools adopt more rigorous learning standards for all students, teachers face many challenges. These challenges include promoting student learning by linking assessment, instruction, student assignments, and grading to academic standards. One strategy for meeting this challenge is the use of instructional rubrics. We hope that the framework presented here, as well as the example of Ms. Leon’s work with her class, will be helpful to other educators as they create rubrics to support their students’ learning in inclusive settings.

References Andrade, H. G. (2000). Using rubrics to pro-

mote thinking and learning. Educational Leadership, 57(5), 13-18.

Dodge, B. (May 5, 1997). Some thoughts about WebQuests. [On-line] Available: http://edWeb.sdsu.edu/courses/edtec596 /about_Webquests.html

Finson, K. D., & Ormsbee, C. K. (1998). Rubrics and their use in inclusive settings. Intervention in School and Clinic, 34(2), 79-88.

Hobbs, R. (1997). Literacy for the informa- tion age. In J. Flood, S. B. Heath, & D. Lapp (Eds.), Handbook of research on teaching literacy through the communica- tive and visual arts (pp. 7-14). New York: Simon & Schuster/Macmillan.*

Kelly, R. (2000). Working with WebQuests. Making the Web accessible to students with disabilities. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 32(6), 4-13.

Kleinert, H. L., Haig, J., Kearns, J. F., & Kennedy, S. (2000). Alternate assess- ments: Lessons learned and roads to be taken. Exceptional Children, 67, 51-66.

Lynch, H., & Tennille, S. (August 3, 2000). Dispelling the myth: A study of culture. [On-line]. Available http:coe.west.asu/ students/stennille/ST3/Webquest.html

McTighe, J. (1997). What happens between assessments? Educational Leadership, 54(4), 6-12.

Salend, S. J. (2001). Creating inclusive class- rooms: Effective and reflective practices (4th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill/Prentice Hall.*

Schirmer, B. R., Bailey, J., & Fitzgerald, S. M. (1999). Using a writing assessment rubric for writing development of children who are deaf. Exceptional Children, 65, 383- 397.

Stanford, P., & Siders, J. A. (2001). Authentic assessment for intervention. Intervention in School and Clinic, 36, 163-167.

*To order the book marked by an asterisk (*), please call 24 hrs/365 days: 1-800-BOOKS- NOW (266-5766) or (732) 728-1040; or visit them on the Web at http:// www.clicksmart .com/teaching/. Use VISA, M/C, AMEX, or Discover or send check or money order + $4.95 S&H ($2.50 each add’l item) to: Clicksmart, 400 Morris Avenue, Long Branch, NJ 07740; (732) 728-1040 or FAX (732) 728- 7080.

Catharine R. Whittaker (CEC Chapter #615), Professor; Spencer J. Salend (CEC Chapter #615, Professor; Department of Educational Studies; and Devon Duhaney, Assistant Professor, Department of Secondary Education, State University of New York (SUNY) at New Paltz.

Address correspondence to Catharine R. Whittaker, Department of Educational Studies, OMB 112, SUNY New Paltz, 75 South Manheim Blvd., New Paltz, NY 12561 (whit- [email protected]).

TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 8-13.

Copyright 2001 CEC.

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ■ NOV/DEC 2001 ■ 13

Rubrics can make grading more objective and

consistent and can assist teachers in explaining their grading of student work to

family members.

Regional Educational Laboratory Northeast & Islands

Guidance on Creating Rubrics 1

Evaluating student performance is part of the assessment development process, and the methods used

will vary based on the nature of the assessment items and task. The purpose of the assessment will

determine the most effective method to use in evaluating students’ work. Methods may be formal and

fairly lengthy or may require only a short descriptive response. For open-ended, constructed-response

formats or performance assessments, clearly developed rubrics are beneficial. Using rubrics may be

appropriate for your assessment because many times, a numerical value may not indicate how a student

can improve his or her performance. Rubrics provide descriptions that define what is expected at each

performance level.

Introduction to Rubrics A rubric is an evaluation tool, usually in a table format, that is used to assess student performance along

a set of criteria. Rubrics are a means of communicating expectations for student performance on an

assessment and providing focused feedback on a student’s progress.

Reasons to Use Rubrics

• Rubrics enable multiple evaluators to apply the same criteria to evaluating assessments.

• Rubrics may be used to provide formative feedback for drafts of work before a final submission is due. For example, a student can use a rubric to assess his or her peers' performance.

• Rubrics provide meaningful feedback concerning a student’s strengths and weaknesses.

• Rubrics allow teachers to help students understand more clearly and completely how the teacher evaluated their work or performance.

• Rubrics also help teachers authentically monitor a student’s learning process.

• Rubrics may inform instructional practice by allowing teachers to modify future lessons based on student performance.

A rubric typically consists of two components: criteria, which are the characteristics of good

performance on a task; and levels of performance, which decscribe the degree to which a criterion has

been met. The criteria in a rubric is typically found as the table rows on a rubric, includes a description of

each element of the assessment and may also include performance samples that illustrate each of the

levels of performance. The levels of performance in a rubric, typically found as the table columns on a

rubric, determine the degree to which the student has met the criterion.

Elements of a Quality Rubric Consider the following elements of a quality rubric:

• Criteria are objective and based on observable behaviors.

• Language clearly communicates expectations for students.

• Language focuses on what is present and not just on what is absent.

• Rubric clearly communicates strengths and weaknesses and how the students may improve their work.

• Rubric provides effective feedback that is directly related to student performance on the assessment or task.