As there are a variety of approaches for working with young children, there are many different approaches to parenting. According to Wardle

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255823063

Parenting Success and Challenges for Families of Children with

Disabilities: An Ecological Systems Analysis

Article  in  Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment · February 2013

DOI: 10.1080/10911359.2012.747408

CITATIONS

69 READS

2,875

3 authors, including:

Carl L. Algood

University of Maryland, Baltimore

13 PUBLICATIONS   320 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Jun Sung Hong

Wayne State University

350 PUBLICATIONS   8,304 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Carl L. Algood on 26 June 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

This article was downloaded by: [71.163.190.179] On: 12 February 2013, At: 08:47 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/whum20

Parenting Success and Challenges for Families of Children with Disabilities: An Ecological Systems Analysis Carl L. Algood a , Cynthia Harris a & Jun Sung Hong b a School of Social Work, Howard University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA b School of Social Work, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA Version of record first published: 12 Feb 2013.

To cite this article: Carl L. Algood , Cynthia Harris & Jun Sung Hong (2013): Parenting Success and Challenges for Families of Children with Disabilities: An Ecological Systems Analysis, Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 23:2, 126-136

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2012.747408

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 23:126–136, 2013 Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 1091-1359 print/1540-3556 online DOI: 10.1080/10911359.2012.747408

Parenting Success and Challenges for Families of Children with Disabilities:

An Ecological Systems Analysis

Carl L. Algood and Cynthia Harris

School of Social Work, Howard University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA

Jun Sung Hong

School of Social Work, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA

This article examines factors that are associated with parenting success for caregivers of children

with disabilities using Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems framework. Although numerous studies

have investigated risk factors for negative parenting among caregivers of children with disabilities,

there are relatively few research findings on parenting success. More specifically, we examine factors

for parenting success within the context of micro- (parenting practices, parent-child relations), meso-

(caregivers’ marital relations, religious social support), and macro-systems (cultural variations, racial

and ethnic disparities, health care delivery system), which is then followed by implications for social

work practice.

Keywords: Caregivers, children, parenting, ecological systems theory, disabilities, special health care

needs

INTRODUCTION

Children with disabilities require much parental attention, which can increase parental stressors.

Several researchers have focused on negative adjustment for caregivers raising children with

disabilities and special health care needs (Gerstein, Crnic, Blacher, & Baker, 2009; Knestrict & Kuchey, 2009; Parish, Rose, & Andrews, 2010). Findings from these studies suggest that

multiple-level factors such as internalized parental stress; socioeconomic status; family rules,

rituals, and routines; lack of adequate insurance coverage; and inaccessible community resources

can compromise quality of parenting for caregivers of children with disabilities or who have special health care needs. While past studies have examined the negative impact of child’s disability on

parenting (Olshansky, 1962; Winkler, 1981), researchers more recently have examined the positive

aspect on parenting and the family system (Blacher & Baker, 2007; Trute, Hiebert-Murph, &

Levine, 2007). For the purpose of this article, children with disabilities are inclusive of children with special health care needs, and the terms will be used interchangeably.

Address correspondence to Carl L. Algood, School of Social Work, Howard University, 601 Howard Place NW, Washington, DC 20059, USA. E-mail: [email protected]

126

D ow

nl oa

de d

by [

71 .1

63 .1

90 .1

79 ]

at 0

8: 47

1 2

Fe br

ua ry

2 01

3

PARENTING SUCCESS AND CHALLENGES 127

A growing body of research findings also suggest that parenting style, family dynamics, and environmental factors are important for understanding, assessing, and managing children’s

disabilities and/or special health care needs (Bitter, 2009; Gfroerer, Kern, Curlette, White, &

Jonyniene, 2011; Johnson, Liu, & Cohen, 2011; Middlebrooks & Audage, 2008; Oyserman,

Bybee, Mowbray, & MacFarlane, 2002; Whiteside-Mansell, Bradley, & McKelvey, 2009; Zlotnick, Wright, Sanchez, Kusnir, & Te’o-Bennett, 2010). A number of studies have shown that poor

parenting quality has consistently been found to be associated with negative outcomes of children

with disabilities and special health care needs such as behavior problems (Drotar, 1997; Hastings,

2002; Herring, Gray, Taffe, Sweeney, & Einfeld, 2006). Although much of the research findings provide data on risk factors for negative parenting among caregivers of children with disabilities,

there is a major dearth of literature on factors for parenting success.

Progress is needed, both in the understanding of the factors that contribute to or mitigate

parenting success of caregivers of children with disabilities and in the development of intervention strategies that enhance parenting success. Such progress requires a comprehensive and integrative

framework that examines factors for parenting success at various levels of the social ecology.

The objective of this review is to examine factors that are associated with parenting success of

children with disabilities within multiple contexts. More specifically, we examine these factors within the context of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, which is then followed by

practice implications for social workers working with caregivers of children with disabilities.

DEFINITION AND PREVALENCE OF DISABILITIES

The Federal Developmental Disabilities Assistance and Bill of Rights Acts define developmental

disability as severe, chronic conditions that (1) are attributable to mental and physical impairments, or both; (2) are manifested prior to age 22; (3) are likely to continue throughout developmental

stages; (4) result in limitations in three or more life activities, such as self-care, language, learn-

ing, mobility, self-direction, capacity for independent living, and economic self-sufficiency; and (5) necessitate a combination and sequence of special interdisciplinary or generic care treatment

or other services that are of extended or lifelong duration and are planned and coordinated (P.L.

106-402, 2000, pp. 7–8). “Developmental disability,” however, is not interchangeable with all

types of disabilities. As stated by Sullivan (2009), children can have a disability that may not necessarily be a developmental disability.

According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (IDEA), a special

needs child is an infant or toddler (from birth to age 22) who is “developmentally delayed,”

which is defined as abnormal growth and development as determined by an early intervention interdisciplinary team of two or more professionals from appropriate allied and mental health

professions (National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities, n.d.). According to

McPherson et al. (1998), children with special health care needs are defined as “children who

have or are at increased risk for a chronic physical, developmental, behavioral, or emotional condition and who also require health and related services of a type or amount beyond that

required for children generally” (p. 1).

Based on the U.S. Census Bureau (2005), more than 9% of families had a child with a

disability in 2004. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2008), 13.9% of children require special health care, and 21.8% of American households have at least

one child with a special health care need. Children from birth to age 5 have the lowest prevalence

rates (8.8%) compared to children 6 to 11 years of age (16.0%). The highest prevalence rates

are among those 12 to 17 years old (18.8%). In terms of gender, boys are more likely to have a special health care need (16.7%) compared to girls (11.6%). With regard to race and ethnicity,

multiracial children have the highest prevalence rates (18.0%), while children of Asian descent

D ow

nl oa

de d

by [

71 .1

63 .1

90 .1

79 ]

at 0

8: 47

1 2

Fe br

ua ry

2 01

3

128 C. L. ALGOOD ET AL.

have the lowest (6.3%). Among children with special health care needs in poverty, 38% of low- income parents reported emotional, behavioral, or developmental problems compared to 22% of

high-income parents (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008).

These children experience a wide range of physical, emotional, and behavioral health challenges

such as allergies (53.0%); asthma (38.8%); ADHD (29.8%); depression, anxiety, or other emotional problems (21.1%); mental retardation (11.4%); autism or autism spectrum disorder (5.4%); seizure

disorder (3.5%); and juvenile-onset diabetes (1.9%). As these prevalence rates indicate, these

children require parental obligations, attention, skills, or financial support.

Ecological Systems Review

The ecological framework facilitates organizing information about people and their environment in

order to understand their interconnectedness. Individuals move through a series of life transitions, all of which necessitate environmental support and coping skills. Social problems involving

health care, family relations, inadequate income, mental health difficulties, conflicts with law

enforcement agencies, unemployment, educational difficulties, and so on can all be subsumed

under the ecological model, which would enable practitioners to assess factors that are relevant to such problems (Hepworth, Rooney, Rooney, Strom-Gottfried, & Larsen, 2010, p. 16). Thus,

examining the ecological contexts of parenting success of children with disabilities is particularly

important. Utilizing Bronfenbrenner’s (1977, 1979) ecological framework, this article explores

parenting success factors at the micro- (i.e., parenting practice, parent-child relations), meso- (i.e., caregivers’ marital relations, religious social support), and macro-system levels (i.e., cultural

variations, racial and ethnic disparities, and health care delivery system) of practice.

Micro-System

Bronfenbrenner (1977) described the micro-system as a pattern of activities, social roles, and

interpersonal relations experienced by the individual or a group of individuals in a direct setting (e.g., family, school). Factors at the micro-system level can directly affect caregiving for children

with disabilities, such as parenting practices and parent-child relations.

Parenting practices. While there is limited research on micro-level parenting success factors

for the broad category of children with disabilities, the literature provided some evidence for

specific categories of disabilities. According to McDonald and Hastings (2010), fathers who were

more attentive of their parenting role would be highly involved in their parenting tasks and were more likely to provide support and care to their child with a disability. Positive family support has

also been demonstrated as an essential success factor (Boyd-Franklin, 2003; Perry & Henry, 2009).

African American children reportedly have greater levels of disability compared with other

racial and ethnic groups due to low socioeconomic background (Newacheck, Stein, Bauman, & Hung, 2003). However, several studies also found that African American families experience

greater success than other racial/ethnic groups in their adaptation and adjustment in raising a child

with a disability (Daly, Jennings, Beckett, & Leashore, 1995; Dunlap & Hollingsworth, 1977;

Neely-Barnes & Marcenko, 2004; Valentine, McDermott, & Anderson, 1998). As theorized by Ha, Greensberg, and Seltzer (2010), positive family support is especially important among African

American families. Extended family support and kinship networks are ongoing mechanisms of

physical, social, and psychological support for African American families (Crewe & Wilson, 2007;

Gourdine, 2007; Taylor, Seaton, & Dominguez, 2008). For instance, a study by Ferguson (2002) found that a large number of caregivers experienced successful parenting while raising a child

with a disability. Caregivers in the study received a considerable amount of support from other

D ow

nl oa

de d

by [

71 .1

63 .1

90 .1

79 ]

at 0

8: 47

1 2

Fe br

ua ry

2 01

3

PARENTING SUCCESS AND CHALLENGES 129

family members. Successful parenting necessitates strong social support systems (Freedman & Boyer, 2000).

Other authors have identified the following resiliency factors as being successful in parenting

of children with disabilities: parental psychological well-being or health, caregivers’ tolerance and

understanding of disabilities, a supportive partner or intimate relationship, and a positive parent- child relationship (e.g., Dyken, 2005; Heiman, 2002). For instance, Heiman reported that the

caregivers of children with disabilities had positive experiences in parenting because the parent-

child bond was strong. In contrast, Gerstein et al. (2009) found that parental stress in raising a

child with a disability differs in mothers and fathers, with fathers experiencing less stress perhaps due to less time spent in parenting than mothers. This finding supports the McDonald and Hastings

(2010) findings that indicate that parent mindfulness was greater in fathers who were stay-at-home

dads. Gerstein et al found that the crossover effect of both parent’s psychological well-being was

a significant factor in reducing stress associated with raising a child with a disability. In addition, a positive father-child relationship was significant, but a positive mother-child relationship was

not, for reducing stress associated with having a child with a disability. This difference may in

part be explained by an earlier study that found that mother’s over-involvement in the life of a

child with a disability may increase her stress (Button, Pianta, & Marcin, 2001). Parent resolution to and acceptance of the child’s disability need is also a success factor. These

parents are able to move on with their lives incorporating the child’s challenges into their daily

routines and lives. These parents do not focus on the causes of the disability but have realistic

viewpoints about the challenge and expectations (Milshtein, Yirmiya, Oppenheim, Kroen-Karie, & Levi, 2010). According to Perry and Henry (2009), parental coping and problem-solving skills

contribute to future success in parenting a child with a disability.

Parent-child relations. Child characteristics associated with the type of disability may in- fluence the responsiveness of parents. Communication challenges found in children with autistic

spectrum disorders may decrease the responsiveness and mindfulness of parents. As a result, the

child with the disability may become distressed, leading to insecure or disorganized attachment

(Howe, 2006). According to Howe,

sound socio-economic circumstances, good family harmony, reliable social support, and improved

and better coordinated services by key agencies appear to reduce maternal stress, increase sensitivity

and improve children’s feelings of security: : : : Key to success is the ability of parent and child to

communicate effectively and reciprocally. (p. 103)

Meso-system

Understanding factors associated with caregiving for children with disabilities necessitates an

examination of the interactions at the meso-system level. A meso-system comprises the interactions

or interrelations among two or more micro-systems, each of which can affect the individual (Bronfenbrenner, 1977, 1979; Compton, Galaway, & Cournoyer, 2005; Magnusson & Allen, 1983).

Experiences involving one micro-system (e.g., caregivers’ marital relationship, religious social

support) may influence another micro-system (e.g., caregiver-child relations).

Caregivers’ marital relations. A caregiver’s marital relation is a meso-system-level factor that has been frequently examined in research (Parish et al., 2008). However, findings from a

number of research studies have produced mixed results. For instance, Friedrich and Friedrich

(1981) found that mothers of children with developmental disabilities reported less satisfaction

with their marital relationship than those of normative children. Other researchers also suggest that the quality of marital relationship of caregivers of children with disabilities and special health

care needs are lower than marital relationship of caregivers of children without disabilities due

D ow

nl oa

de d

by [

71 .1

63 .1

90 .1

79 ]

at 0

8: 47

1 2

Fe br

ua ry

2 01

3

130 C. L. ALGOOD ET AL.

to parental distress (Kersh, Hedvat, Hauser-Cram, & Warfield, 2006) and marital violence (see Algood, Hong, Gourdine, & Williams, 2001). Kersh and colleagues reported that parents in their

study appear to have lower-quality marriage than couples in the general population, and about

one-fourth of parents in their sample characterized their marital relationship as ‘distressed’

Other studies report no difference in the association between children’s disability and par- ents’ marital relations. A study by Seltzer, Greenberg, Floyd, Pettee, and Hong (2001) found

from a large sample of parents in Wisconsin that marital status of parents of children with a

developmental disability were similar to parents of children without a developmental di

Collepals.com Plagiarism Free Papers

Are you looking for custom essay writing service or even dissertation writing services? Just request for our write my paper service, and we'll match you with the best essay writer in your subject! With an exceptional team of professional academic experts in a wide range of subjects, we can guarantee you an unrivaled quality of custom-written papers.

Get ZERO PLAGIARISM, HUMAN WRITTEN ESSAYS

Why Hire Collepals.com writers to do your paper?

Quality- We are experienced and have access to ample research materials.

We write plagiarism Free Content

Confidential- We never share or sell your personal information to third parties.

Support-Chat with us today! We are always waiting to answer all your questions.