Mallicoat Chapter11 The incarceration of women

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Amberly Vo

The incarceration of women is a complex and neglected issue in the public policy arena. Over the years, the conditions, discrimination based on gender, and systematic neglect within female prisons have been historically horrendous. In Chapter 11 of Mallicoat’s Women, Gender and Crime Core Concepts (2nd Edition), these issues are explored in depth, from the historical development of female prisons to the complications of incarcerated women, to the detriments to the personal and corporeal well-being of incarcerated women. Severe mistreatment, inadequate facilities, and lack of gender-specific policies have characterized the history of women’s imprisonment. The Auburn State Prison was the early pioneer of terrible conditions for female prisoners, during which a pregnant woman died of beatings at the hands of department employees. Such incidents demonstrate the neglect of prison officials toward female inmates' special needs. Elizabeth Fry and others saw these injustices and were already fighting for separate facilities, better living conditions and proper rehabilitation. The first female prison was a significant milestone as it was meant to prove that women are taken to different correctional styles than men. However, racial disparities persisted. However, racial disparities persisted. Women of color were also disproportionately custodied in institutions and their prison experiences were harsher, on average, than that of white women. These disparities reflect wider functions of society that are also unequal. In the shift from correction institutions to institutions of moral reformation, the notion of women as inherently reformable individuals was taken for granted. However, these efforts had the unintended consequence of strengthening written and unwritten gender norms that once released, expected women to revert to their traditional roles in the domestic sphere. This history troubles me because I see the modern policies of incarceration as a product of systemic biases that exist. Rather women are subjected to punitive measures and not rehabilitative programs tailored to women's needs generally.

As per Akbari (2023), the racial inequalities in the justice system that continue to treat Black and Indigenous women unequally spotlight how historical injustices persist in contemporary correctional practices. One aspect of the reading that stood out to me was the overrepresentation of LGBTQ individuals in the prison system. LGBTQ women face additional vulnerabilities, including heightened exposure to sexual violence. In many cases, their incarceration stems from societal discrimination, homelessness, and lack of support networks. Prisons fail to provide adequate protection or resources, exacerbating the struggles of LGBTQ inmates.

Additionally, the reading highlights poverty and education as key factors in women’s incarceration. "In many cases, incarcerated women come from backgrounds of extreme poverty, have little or no education, and therefore have very limited options for rehabilitation" (Mallicoat, 2024). Numerous incarcerated women are denied access to education, before and during incarceration. However, a lack of this education renders them unable to reintegrate into society upon release. Formerly incarcerated women have trouble gaining employment without marketable skills, which only furthers their chances of returning to prison. I resonated with this insight because I have seen similar patterns of women who were formerly incarcerated facing barriers to job creation and housing because of their criminal records, which is happening in their local reentry programs. I found one aspect of the reading that caught out to me particularly was how there were so many LGBTQ individuals in the prison system. Furthermore, LGBTQ women are vulnerable to exposure to sexual violence. Many of their incarcerations are due to societal discrimination, homelessness, and lack of support networks. LGBTQ prisoners face too little protection or resources from prisons. Furthermore, it also mentions poverty and education as factors contributing to women’s incarceration. Educationally, incarcerated women have very few opportunities, both before and during imprisonment. However, because of this lack of education, their ability to re-enter society after release is highly limited.

Women who have been incarcerated lack marketable skills and find it difficult to secure employment, thus making them more likely to recidivate. I related to this insight as I have witnessed similar patterns in local reentry programs that help formerly incarcerated women find employment and secure housing due to having a criminal record. Physical and mental health problems faced by women in prison are severe and are worsened by inadequate medical care. It has severe health risks due to overcrowding, poor resources, and neglect. Specifically, this reading emphasizes the high incidence of mental health disorders among incarcerated women, generally as a result of past trauma, alcohol and drug abuse, domestic violence, and other factors. As per Mallicoat (2024), "Mental health care in correctional institutions remains insufficient, leaving many women untreated and vulnerable". Women feel vulnerable to worsening mental health conditions without appropriate treatment in many prisons. Among the one particularly striking case from the reading was that of a drug called Seroquel, which is prescribed to treat severe mental disorders. Discontinuation of such medications in prison settings results in withdrawal symptoms, as well as deterioration in mental health. As per Haney (2017) inmates with mental illnesses often receive exceptional care which leads to outlandish behavior resulting in longer sentences or more vicious disciplinary actions.

Another pressing concern is the widespread of HIV and hepatitis in female prisons beyond mental health. Mallicoat (2024) also notes that incarcerated women are at a higher risk for infectious diseases because of poor hygiene, an absence of healthcare service, and no access to condoms or clean needles and may emphasize these ideas on a greater scale. Added to these problems are the absence of comprehensive health education programs. From a policy standpoint, healthcare reform within prison systems can significantly improve health outcomes for incarcerated women and risk to public health when they are released (Ball, 2016). The most heartbreaking part of chapter 11 is the discussion of incarceration is how it affects children. Primary caregivers, many of whom are incarcerated, separate their families, cause emotional distress, and have long-term developmental effects on their children. However, Mallicoat also details how some women enter prison while pregnant and receive little to no prenatal care, which then leads to poor health outcomes for both mother and baby. Despite efforts by advocates to ban shackling pregnant inmates, the practice is still legal.

The reading also considers prison nursery programs that permit incarcerated mothers to spend time with their infants. While mother and child bonding are something provided by these programs, they have not been adequately funded and are nonetheless scarce. The alternative children being put into foster care or utilizing extended family usually leads to disrupted family structures. Muentner et al., (2019) show that children of incarcerated parents are at a higher risk of poverty, and behavioral issues, and sometimes end up in the same criminal justice system as their parents, keeping them in the repetition of it. I could relate to this discussion on a personal level as I have worked with families affected by maternal incarceration. However, children are precisely the unintended victims for whom policies should be considering the best interests. Some possible means of mitigating these negative effects include expanding family support programs and other alternatives to incarceration for people convicted of nonviolent offenses as well as community-based sentencing options. Thinking about these issues, I am shocked to realize that no reforms to address the very concrete issues faced by incarcerated women. Despite this, the gendered experience of the female inmate remains largely unaccounted for within the criminal justice system, which remains largely a male offenders’ system. "To be done, reforms in the correctional system need to be gender sensitive and gender-specific in addressing specific challenges faced by women" (Mallicoat, 2024). However, improved outcomes would be achieved through increased funding of educational and vocational and proper healthcare access and community-based alternatives to incarceration. Furthermore, tackling the generations in prison is important to disrupt cycles of poverty and crime involved in criminal justice. Implementing these changes makes society headed in a direction that is just, that is equitable and rehabilitative in ensuring that incarcerated women receive the support and rehabilitation that everything relies on rebuilding their lives.

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