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NINTH EDITION

Social Welfare A History of the American Response to Need

Mark J. Stern University of Pennsylvania

June Axinn Late of University of Pennsylvania

330 Hudson Street, NY, NY 10013

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Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks that may appear in this work are the property of their respective owners and any references to third-party trademarks, logos or other trade dress are for demonstrative or descriptive purposes only. Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, authors, licensees or distributors.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Stern, Mark J., author. | Axinn, June, author. Title: Social welfare : a history of the American response to need / Mark J. Stern, University of Pennsylvania, June Axinn. Description: New York : Pearson, [2018] | Revised edition of Social welfare, c2012. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016049784| ISBN 9780134449913 Subjects: LCSH: Public welfare—United States—History—Sources. | Social service—United States—History—Sources. | Child welfare—United States—History—Sources. Classification: LCC HV91 .S6235 2018 | DDC 361.60973—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016049784

1 17

ISBN-10: 0-13-444991-6 ISBN-13: 978-0-13-444991-3

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iii

Preface

This book has gone through many stages. Initially, the volume was planned as a collec- tion of historical documents with brief introductory statements. The documents were to be materials pertinent to an understanding of the development of social welfare policies and programs in the United States. As work progressed, it became clear that the docu- ments did not always support long-established interpretations found in popular second- ary sources. The introductory statements became longer and longer as what we found became more intriguing. The core of the book is now the historical narrative. The docu- ments included have been chosen to illuminate the history.

The ninth edition of Social Welfare: A History of the American Response to Need exam- ines the most current social welfare issues in historical perspective. Chapter 9 has been revised to cover the period f rom 1992 to 2016. It examines how the administrations of Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama have inf luenced social welfare policy. Earlier editions analyzed the beginnings of the “turn to the right” of the 1980s. This edition explores the effects of the drive to reduce federal spending for public programs further and to turn control and responsibility for social welfare over to the states and the private sector.

As in every period treated in the book, f rom the Colonial era to the present, social welfare policy is put into economic, demographic, and political contexts. The accelerat- ing shift to a postindustrial economy, with its accompanying loss of manufacturing jobs, and the increasing bifurcation of income and wealth set the background for the weaken- ing safety net.

New to This Edition For this edition, the structure of chapters has been thoroughly revised. Each chapter is organized around three elements: changes in the social and economic conditions of the period, innovations in social welfare, and the role of social movements.

The introduction and the historical chapters have been revised and expanded to include new sections on:

• The history of relationships between American Indians and Europeans during the Colonial era and the treatment and status of Native Americans.

• The impact of immigration on the nation’s demography and the debate over immigration policy.

• Expanded discussions of social movements throughout American history and their impact of social welfare.

• An analysis of the impact of the recession of 2007–2009—the worst in the past 60!years.

• The implementation of the Affordable Care Act passed by Congress in 2010.

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iv Preface

In addition, new to this edition is the format of the text.

• Each chapter features Learning Outcomes to give you an idea of what will be covered in the chapter. These correspond to the sections that are within the chapters.

Acknowledgments Graduate students in the social work program of the University of Pennsylvania have used successive editions of this book. Thanks go to all of them for their thoughtful contributions.

Many colleagues, both in social work and in related fields, have been particularly helpful. It is especially pleasant to acknowledge June’s niece, Amy Hirsch, of Commu- nity Legal Services of Philadelphia, and June’s son, David Axinn, formerly director of Blair County Legal Services of Altoona, Pennsylvania, and now a partner in the firm of Cohen and Axinn, Hollidaysburg, Pennsylvania. They have each made insightful com- ments and suggestions f rom their f rontline positions. We thank June’s daughter, Con- stance Johnson, who as legal research analyst at the Law Library of Congress provided invaluable bibliographic aid. In addition, I want to acknowledge the following reviewers, who provided suggestions for enhancements for this new edition: David Fauri, Virginia Commonwealth University; Robert Hawkins, New York University; Carol L. Langer, Colorado State University–Pueblo; and William Rowe, Southern Connecticut State University.

Hal Levin, one of our most treasured colleagues, coauthored the first two editions of Social Welfare. Although Hal died in 1983, his name appeared as a coauthor of the book for the next 16 years. His contribution to the book—especially its attention to the historical development of social administration—remains considerable. June Axinn, whose name still appears as an author, died in 2006. However, her scholarship remains the foundation, and her incisive approach to social welfare continues to animate this edition.

During the last years of Hal’s life, I joined the faculty of the University of Pennsylva- nia School of Social Work. For a short period, the three of us enjoyed our collaboration, which included developing an understanding of the impact of the rise of conservatism on social welfare, as well as more mundane pursuits like agreeing on a place to eat lunch. After Hal’s death, June and I continued this work that appeared in Dependency and Pov- erty: Old Problems in a New World (Lexington Books, 1988) and regular discussions of his- tory and contemporary social welfare.

Sidney Axinn and Susan Seifert, our spouses, made important contributions to this volume. Their wit, humor, and support make all things possible.

Mark Stern

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v

1. Introduction: How to Think About Social Welfare’s Past (and Present) 1

2. The Colonial Period: 1647–1776 15 3. The Pre–Civil War Period: 1777–1860 34 4. The Civil War and After: 1860–1900 77 5. Progress and Reform: 1900–1930 115 6. The Depression and the New Deal: 1930–1940 156 7. War and Prosperity: 1940–1968 205 8. Conservative Resurgence and Social Change: 1968–1992 251 9. Social Welfare and the Information Society: 1992–2016 285

Brief Contents

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vi

1 Introduction: How to Think About Social Welfare’s Past (and Present) 1 DOCUMENT: Introduction 10

An Act for the Relief of the Poor, 43 Elizabeth, 1601 11

2 The Colonial Period: 1647–1776 15 The Poor Laws in the Colonies 17 Conquest, Expansion, and Population Growth: Native Americans, Immigration, and Slavery 23 Social Change and the Challenge to the Poor Laws 26 Veterans: A Special Class 29 DOCUMENTS: The Colonial Period 31

An Act of Supplement to the Acts Referring to the Poor, Massachusetts Bay, 1692 31 The Binding of Moses Love, 1747 33

3 The Pre–Civil War Period: 1777–1860 34 Social and Economic Conditions 36

Population Growth and Migration 36 Slavery and Free Labor 38

Reform and Social Change 42 Labor Unrest 42 Religious and Political Reform 43 The Expansion of Public Education 44 The Expansion of Suffrage 44 Moral Reform 45

Social Welfare Programs and Services 47 Institutionalization 47 Child Saving 53 Retreat from the Almshouse 56

DOCUMENTS: The Pre–Civil War Period 59 The First Annual Report of the Managers of the Society for the Prevention of Pauperism in the City of New York, 1818 60

Contents

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Contents vii

Constitution, By-Laws, & c., of the Female Orphan Asylum of Portland, Maine, 1828 67 President Franklin Pierce: Veto Message—An Act Making a Grant of Public Lands to the Several States for the Benefit of Indigent Insane Persons, 1854 73

4 The Civil War and After: 1860–1900 77 Changing Economic and Demographic Realities 77

Population Changes 79 Naturalization and Citizenship 79 Regional Shifts 81 The Aging: The Group That Was Left Behind 83

Innovations in Social Welfare Services 83 The Welfare of Soldiers and Veterans 84 Social Welfare: Reconstruction and the Freedmen’s Bureau 86 Social Welfare and Urban Expansion 89 The Charity Organization Movement 90 The Settlement House Movement 95 A New View of Child Welfare 97

Social Movements During the Late 19th Century: The Reform Impulse 100 The Social Welfare of Women 100 The Labor Movement 102 The Agrarian Movement 103

Conclusion 105 DOCUMENTS: The Civil War and After 106

An Act to Provide for the Relief of Indigent Soldiers, Sailors and Marines, and the Families of Those Deceased, 1887 107 The Economic and Moral Effects of Public Outdoor Relief, 1890 108 An Act to Prohibit the Coming of Chinese Laborers to the United States, September 1888, and Supplement, October 1888 111

5 Progress and Reform: 1900–1930 115 Changing Economic and Demographic Realities 116

An Urban and Industrial Society 116 Poverty and the Working Class 118 African Americans, Native Americans, and Immigrants 119

Innovations in Social Welfare 122 Regulating Working Conditions 124 Expanding Public Welfare 126 Protecting Vulnerable Families 128 Social Work and the Black Population 132 The Social Welfare of Veterans 133 Professionalizing Social Work 134

Social Movements in the Early 20th Century 136 Coalitions for Reform 136 Regulating Business 138

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viii Contents

Organized Labor 138 Women, Work, and Suffrage 139 The End of Reform 141

DOCUMENTS: Progress and Reform 143 The Family and the Woman’s Wage, 1909 144 Funds to Parents Act, Illinois, 1911 146 Public Pensions to Widows, 1912 147

6 The Depression and the New Deal: 1930–1940 156 Changing Economic and Demographic Realities 156

The Economic Collapse 156 Agricultural Crisis 158 Family Life 162

Innovations in Social Welfare 163 The Hoover Response to Crisis 163 FDR and the First New Deal 164

Public Money for Relief 166 Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) 167

The Second New Deal 168 The Social Security Act 170 Expanding Social Security: The 1939 Amendments 172 Public Assistance 173

The Changing Role of the Social Work Profession 176 New Alignments in Social Welfare 178

Mass Movements During the 1930s 180 Veterans and the Bonus 181 Older Americans 182 Labor and Social Welfare 182 Setbacks for Women 185 The Eclipse of Reform 185

Conclusion 186 DOCUMENTS: The Depression and the New Deal 188

Monthly Reports of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, 1933 189 Social Security Act, 1935 195

7 War and Prosperity: 1940–1968 205 Changing Economic and Demographic Realities 207

Population Shifts 207 Technology, Productivity, and Economic Insecurity 210 World War II 212 Wartime Economic and Social Advances 214 Postwar Optimism 215

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Contents ix

Innovations in Social Welfare 218 Veterans and the GI Bill 218 The Attack on Public Welfare 219 Poverty and the Reform of Welfare 220 The War on Poverty 225 Expanded Benefits for the Aging 230 Controlling Public Assistance 230

Social Movements and Reform After World War II 232 Expanding the Civil Rights of African Americans 232 A Renewed Feminist Movement 234 Civil Rights and Juvenile Justice 235

DOCUMENTS: War and Prosperity 236 Message on the Public Welfare Program, 1962 237 Economic Opportunity Act, 1964 243 In re Gault, 1967 246

8 Conservative Resurgence and Social Change: 1968–1992 251 Economic and Social Trends 252

A Struggling Economy 252 Changing Employment Patterns 253 The Changing Family 254 Poverty and Income Distribution 256

Innovations in Social Welfare 258 Expenditures for Social Welfare 258 Challenging the Welfare State: Welfare Reform 260 Child Welfare and the Aging 263 The Unemployed 266 Veterans 268 Personal Social Services 268

Social Movements 269 The New Right 269 The Expansion of Civil Rights 270 Women 274

Conclusion 275 DOCUMENTS: Conservative Resurgence and Social Change 276

Message on Reform in Welfare, 1969 277 Standard of Review for Termination of Disability Benefits, 1984 283

9 Social Welfare and the Information Society: 1992–2016 285 Social and Economic Change 287

The Economy: Productivity, Growth, and Employment 287 Poverty 290

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x Contents

Changes in Family Composition 292 America’s Changing Demography 293

Innovations in Social Welfare 293 The Fall and Rise of Health Care Reform 293

The Failure of Comprehensive Reform in the 1990s 294 Achieving Comprehensive Reform in 2010 296

Addressing Poverty and Dependency: The Scope of Welfare Reform 298 The Changing Dynamics of the Welfare Debate 298 The New Consensus over Welfare Reform 300 The Impact of Welfare Reform 301

Social Movements and Grassroots Change 302 Welfare Reform and “Immigration Control” 302 The Return to Voluntarism and the Rise of Privatization 303 The Continuing Battle for Social Justice 306

Education 306 Affirmative Action in the Labor Market 307

Abortion and the Right to Privacy 308 The Great Lockup 310

Conclusion 311 DOCUMENTS: Social Welfare and the Information Society 313

Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, 1996 314 State of California, Proposition 187, Illegal Aliens—Public Services, Verification, and Reporting, 1994 317 U.S. Supreme Court Lawrence v. Texas, 2003 321

Notes 329 Credits 344 Index 349

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1

LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Summarize the major factors that inf luence changes in social welfare during a particular historical era.

• Assess the impact of welfare reform and health care reform on the well- being of Americans.

• Summarize the role of social movements in contemporary American social controversies.

DOCUMENT: Introduction 10 An Act for the Relief of the Poor,

43 Elizabeth, 1601 11

1 Introduction: How!to!Think About Social Welfare’s Past!(and Present)

Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it. —George Santayana

History is more or less bunk. It’s tradition. We don’t want tradi- tion. We want to live in the present, and the only history that is worth a tinker’s damn is the history that we make today

—Henry Ford

How important is the history of social welfare and social work? The answer lies somewhere between these two quotations. As Santayana asserts, many of the challenges we face today echo the problems that others have faced in the past. The limitations of resources, the hostility to the poor and dependent, and the ethical issues involved in interven- ing in the private lives of clients are issues social workers and policy makers have faced in the past. Yet, at the same time that the past can be a guide, it can also be a straitjacket, constraining our actions and pre- venting us from understanding what is novel about our times.

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2 Chapter 1

Here’s the thing. History can be useful in both of these situations. At the same time, it allows us to understand how current public assistance and child welfare policies echo the misconceptions of past generations, it can allow us to understand the novelty of cur- rent patterns of family life. It can’t help a practitioner decide on a particular strategy for engaging a client, but it can help the practitioner understand the set of social forces that put them in a room together.

American history is more than the chronology of elections and wars often covered by textbooks. Although often ignored, our history includes the struggles of many indi- viduals and groups to improve the opportunities of ordinary people and to reduce the role of discrimination and exclusion in our society. This book tells this story, the his- tory of American social welfare. It explores the political and economic forces, values and ideas, and social institutions that have inf luenced the development and reform of social welfare policies and programs over the course of American history.

The goals of social welfare programs derive from the goals of the larger society for itself and from the dominant ways that people make sense of the world around them. In turn, decisions about who is needy and how they are to be helped bear upon economic development, political organization, social stability, and family integrity. Social welfare programs involve a redistribution of resources from one group to another. Our political culture has often resisted using government to redistribute resources, relying instead on the market to carry out this function. Through much of our history, Americans have valued private assets over public goods and individual autonomy over collective choices.

Decisions about who should benefit f rom public policies often polarize Americans. Should we be more generous with programs for older Americans or children? Does pro- viding aid to a group discourage independence or allow it to f lourish? These issues were debated 200 years ago, just as they are today.

Yet, despite these value conf licts, social realities—economic crises, wars, and civil disorder—have led us to embrace many active social policies. Although it sounds like a contradiction, very often Americans are ideological conservatives and pragmatic liberals.

Decisions about benefit levels and eligibility often communicate whether a program is intended to invite or discourage participation. The extent to which needy individu- als are viewed as beneficiaries, recipients, clients, or consumers suggests the intent of the program. Welfare recipients, for example, are subject to behavioral requirements that would be unthinkable for Social Security beneficiaries.

The geographical and demographic scope of the United States—the size and diver- sity of its population—as well as legal and social traditions related to volunteerism, to separation of church and state, to states’ rights, and to local responsibility—all compli- cate legislative and administrative decisions in social welfare matters. Throughout Amer- ican history we have debated the proper role of the federal, state, and local governments in funding and administering programs. Some have argued that federal programs can assure equal treatment across the country, while others have argued the local govern- ments are more likely to understand the needs of their residents. Although private non- profit organizations have often played an important role in administering social programs, government has more often than not provided the funding. Since the 1990s, for-profit corporations and professionals in private practice have assumed a more central role in providing services, but again, government has usually provided the funding. The number and complexity of these decisions result in bills—like the 2010 health care reform law— that are thousands of pages long.

The history of social welfare is also a story of the growing professionalism of those who administer social services—that is, with the history of the social work profession.

Although often ignored, our history includes the struggles of many individuals and groups to improve the opportunities of ordinary people and to reduce the role of dis- crimination and exclu- sion in our society.

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Introduction: How to Think About Social Welfare’s Past (and Present) 3

The early development of the public and voluntary sectors of social welfare was accom- panied by the development of service providers appropriate to their purposes: both the overseer of the poor and the lady bountiful. Yet, as social welfare programs and services have become more institutionalized, service providers have been required to acquire and demonstrate their skills and capacities. Social workers originally drew their inspiration from the struggle against poverty and want, but as they became more professional, they often sought to define their unique skills as associated with psychology and individual adjustment. The tension between social work as a social change profession and social work as an individual adjustment profession has gone on for a century and will likely con- tinue in the future. At the end of the day, however, social work practitioners have no choice but to address both social injustice and the immediate needs of their clients. Thus, the philosophical tension between individual and social change surfaces in one’s profes- sional practice as one decides how both to address the everyday problems faced by one’s clients and to assess one’s professional responsibility to pursue social justice in imperfect systems.

When this book was originally conceived four decades ago, it argued that social wel- fare policy and pro-family policy were essentially the same. Yet, as the authors made this claim, the politics of domestic life were in the process of exploding. The gender question—whether men and women should be treated the same—had been simmering in politics since at least the years before the Civil War, when many questioned the pro- priety of female abolitionists addressing “mixed” crowds of men and women. However, during the 1970s, the legalization of abortion and the failed attempt to add the Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution provoked schisms that have yet to be overcome. If anything, the battle over gender has become more contested in recent years as strug- gles over marriage equality and questions (often raised by transgender commentators) about whether using the categories male and female themselves as exhaustive categories has reinforced the divide.

From the beginning, a separate channeling of family welfare and child welfare, originating with English Poor Laws, and, therefore, at one with the fabric of an English colonial milieu, divided social welfare responses for the worthy poor—the disabled and children—from those for the unworthy—the able-bodied poor. The incorporation of the English Poor Laws into the legislative framework of American colonial governments dif- ferentiated those who were unable to work f rom those who were potentially employ- able. Poor Law programs were vitally concerned with those who were employed and who might be in danger of falling into pauperism. The family was effective to the degree that it maintained the social order and the economic viability of its individual members. To a considerable extent, social welfare programs for poor people in the 20th century retain this orientation.

The essential worthiness of children and the importance of nurturing their potential for social and economic contribution led to stated, public concern for their well-being as members of families and eventually to grudging recognition of the needs of fami- lies. The 20th century was proclaimed the Century of the Child, and pressures to make the label stick resulted in the calling of the first White House Conference on Children in 1909 and to a positive statement of public policy in regard to child care. Home and family life were declared to be society’s goal for children, an enunciation of the rights of children. Economic necessity, many felt, should not require that a mother leave her child care responsibilities for work outside the home. Time and reality have demonstrated more and more ambivalence of policy and practice in child welfare. The 21st century began with one-fifth of U.S. children living in poverty.

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4 Chapter 1

The changing status of women was a pivotal event in social welfare history. Until the middle of the 20th century, married women rarely worked in the formal economy, yet they provided the vast majority of care, typically to members of their family. By the 1970s, a majority of married women were working for wages or salaries. Although women’s entry into the labor force allowed many of them to take advantage of their skills and education and helped many family budgets that were strained by inf lation and economic stagnation, it created a “caring gap” because women had less time to care for sick or dependent members of society. Today, much of this work is still done by women, but now they are more often poorly paid aides rather than family members.

Government financial capacity often has more inf luence than the needs of clients on social welfare policy. During the 18th and 19th centuries, state and local governments collected few taxes and provided few services, whereas the federal government’s role in social welfare was usually limited to the well-being of veterans. The entry of the fed- eral government into social welfare policy greatly expanded the social welfare budget (Figure!1.1). However, attacks on “tax-and-spend” policies during the late 20th century rev

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