Provide a working definition of self-esteem. Indicate the type of response format that you would recommend for our instrument (for example, Likert-scale,

Key Concepts in Psychological Testing Discussion

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Key Concepts in Psychological Testing Discussion

Kline (2005) introduces fundamental statistics knowledge for psychological testing through his book Psychological Testing: A Practical Approach to Design and Evaluation. The core concepts taught in Chapter 1 encompass measurement scales and their properties, along with null hypothesis testing and correlation, which serve as fundamental principles for psychological testing evaluation.

Scales of Measurement

Kline (2005) established four measurement levels, from nominal to ordinal to interval to ratio scales. The classification method of nominal scales presents data through categories that maintain no specific sequence, like gender categories or political groups. The ordinal measurement method allows the ranking of students based on performance yet fails to provide quantitative distinctions between their positions. The temperature measurement scale in Celsius works with equal value spacing yet fails to establish a starting point as zero. Ratio scales contain absolute zero reference points that allow quantitative proportion comparisons between weight and height measurements (in the case of 50 kg weight, when compared to 100 kg weight, the smaller value is exactly one-half). The selected measurement scale shapes which statistical methods can analyze research data (Kline, 2005).

Statistical Significance and the Null Hypothesis

Standard statistical assessments determine whether detected changes in data sets stem from accidental occurrences. According to Kline (2005), the null hypothesis (H₀) works as the default assumption for non-existence, while the alternative hypothesis (H₁) presents the existence of meaningful effects. Researchers establish statistical significance through p-values, which demonstrate less than 5% or 1% probability of random results when set at a 0.05 or 0.01 threshold. A statistical test using a p-value of 0.03 indicates significant findings because such results by random chance emerge only three times during 100 trials. The rejection of the null hypothesis occurs when p < 0.05, proving that the observed effect exists (Kline, 2005).

Correlation

The correlation measurement helps establish how strong and which way two variables relate to each other through linear patterns. The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) described by Kline (2005) operates between -1.00 for strong negative alignment and +1.00 for strong positive linkage, while zero represents no association. Parisian study time and test score comparisons yield an r = 0.70 correlation that indicates strong matching trends, whereas a partnership between stress and job satisfaction demonstrates an r = -0.50 relationship associated with moderate opposition. The correlation between variables cannot determine causality because outside factors could influence the measured relationship (Kline, 2005). The statistical concepts maintain basic significance in psychological assessment to provide valid results with reliable interpretability.

Reference

Kline, T. (2005). Psychological testing : a practical approach to design and evaluation / Theresa J.B. Kline. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483385693

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see. All right. Please quiet tonight. How about everything else? How's like, Julio? Were you trying to speak? Or did I just see your… I can't hear you again. I don't know what happened. What's happening? All right. I do see some people typing in the chat, but I haven't heard anybody speak. So, hi, Melissa. Hi, Natalie. Hi, Lynette. Hi. How are you? Good, how are you? My dogs were barking, so I didn't want to unmute. That's okay. I understand. All right. Okay, so J.C. said his mics being blocked. I know sometimes that happens. I'm not quite sure why. But yet, I may have to do with. your particular computer setup. All right. Well, while we're at such a bunch of people have entered, which is great. While people are entering, if anybody has any questions or comments about week one, I am going to try to grade your papers and discussions, by end of day Wednesday. So you have some feedback before your week two assignments are due. And in terms of your discussions, it looked like you guys were off to a good start. So so far, so good. And I have a quick question about discussion. Sure. Um, let me. Hi. I'm sorry. So hi. Um, so I know several people from residency and we chit chat here and there. And I'm like, and I know poor bear was in here last week. It's like, where's everybody in the discussion? I think he's, I think he's away. I think he's on vacation or something. Oh, because is, is everybody in discussion or are we separated? Oh, you're separated. Oh, I know, I'm like, I'm so confused. Oh, yeah, maybe you didn't hear that. So, yeah, just to reiterate, there are two sections of this class, and because I'm teaching both of the sections, you know, we're having this combined live session so that, you know, anybody from either session can come. But, you know, obviously when there's multiple sections, sometimes it's one professor, sometimes it's different professors, like it's done all different ways. It just depends on scheduling. Obviously, we all have to teach, you know, classes. So anyway, the whole point is that it wouldn't make sense for you all to be in one class. That would be huge. and then you don't get as much feedback and, you know. That's what I figured, but I've never experienced it before. So I was like, wow, we must have a lot of people in this class. So she probably separated for our good and hers. Yeah, yeah. So I don't make the decisions about how big the classes are, but the classes aren't supposed to be bigger than 30. And if we would have put two classes together, it would have been well over that so yeah you know obviously we're trying well good luck to you thank you yeah we'll see how I do with getting all the greedy done Wednesday night but you know we'll try I'm trying so um so obviously I'm juggling dissertations and everything else but that's good I'm glad you have you know you're starting to get familiar with other classmates um I know networking we got a network that's great it's very smart um and yeah obviously some of you are very far along in the program others of you are newer but residency is a great way to interact with other people so hopefully i'll see some of you in july um during that second week of july when we have residency and um but yeah i really encourage you to kind of develop your own support system whether it's one person or multiple people, it's just nice when you have some familiar, friendly faces, and you're going through something similar, PhD program, right, in psychology. So, all right, great. Thank you for starting us off with it. All right. So, obviously here we are in week two of psychometrics. So as a reminder, you know, we have the typical requirements in this class. Your initial discussion post is due on Wednesday. And then you are required to respond to three of your classmates' original posts each week. You know, for those of you who are here, I've already, you know, taken a list down of your names and you're required to do two responses. So you do get excused from one of those by attending. I see a few more people are here. So I'll double check this at the end. And then just as a reminder, be sure to include at least two scholarly sources in each discussion and that's important you know even when we're talking about something like self-esteem and if i want you to come up with your own definition you um you should if you're drawing from other sources like you get some other ideas um you should cite those and then you know report your own interpretation. Thank you. My lips are so dry. Okay. I think I hear some talking. So I'm going to just mute. Okay. So last week we started on the discussion about self-esteem. And so that was your last question. And so this week we're going to come up with what you think. is the best definition of self-esteem. And that's going to be, you know, one of the major parts of your discussion this week. So we started that last week. But I want you to provide a working definition of self -esteem. That's your own definition with your definition. So it shouldn't just be what you think. But you should, you know, as a recent, researcher and scholar, be citing, you know, other sources, whether that's Rosenberg or, you know, other scholars that are in the field of self-esteem. So part one asks you to provide a working definition of self-esteem. Part two ask you to indicate the type of response format that you would recommend for our instrument. For example, it could be a Lycurt scale, like, you know, strongly agree, some would agree, neither agree nor disagree, somewhat disagree, strongly disagree. That would be an example of a Lycurt scale. An open-ended question would be one where participants could give any kind of answer. It wouldn't just be a yes or no answer. It would be giving some kind of some kind of open-ended questions. It could be true -fals questions. It could be multiple choice where you choose one answer or more than one answer. So, you know, this is important because with what you're measuring, how you're going to measure it is going to influence both the kind of data that you get and the kind of analyses that you're that you're able to do and you want to make sure that you're getting the meaning that you intended so um you know are you trying to get a more narrow definition of self-esteem are you trying to get a broader definition of self-esteem so if we're coming up with a new instrument we need to have a new definition for self-esteem we can't just use like rosenberg's definition for self-esteem. There has to be some kind of justification because otherwise why create a new instrument? So, you know, obviously there are differences of opinions for how you could define something like self -esteem. And so this is an exercise where you will be, you know, starting to work on developing an instrument. And then we're going to go through the steps and validate it so you know this is this hopefully it'll be a fun process for you guys because it is kind of a cool experience and it's a little different so um you know if you you know you want to come up with what you think for part two what would be useful what what's going to give you the kind of information you want what kind of response format is going to give you usable information. So if it's something that's difficult to score or to figure out, you know, what the trends are in the data, then that might not be that useful for you. If you come up with a rating scale, just make sure it's going to be consistent across all the items because you don't want to be changing and, you know, confusing your participants. if you have like a true false question that's going to give you data that's like ones and zeros like yes or no and so that's not going to give you as much range in your data as if you have multiple options so it would still give you a little variation and it would be standardized but it's just going to be giving you two categories right true or false whereas multiple choice if you're asking things like, well, what's your favorite color, gray, yellow, blue, or green? That's a, you know, a nominal variable. And so it'll put people into categories, but it's not giving you any order. So it's, it's kind of limited as well and what kind of information it's giving you. So when you come up with a way to measure, typically you would want to have the greatest range that would give you. you a rich you know a richer amount of information so for example if you're um you know depending on which scale you use just be sure you specify what you would want to use and what you think would be most useful so um for example if you use a lycurt scale um that is something where it's like you ask questions about self-esteem and you have a number of different items about self-esteem, once you have all those Likert scale scored items, you could add them together and it could be treated as a continuous variable. And if you'll recall, when we have an interval or ratio variable, a continuous variable, it's richer. We're able to do more with our analyses and more with our data. So generally, that would be something that you would want to lean towards. We'd want to go towards getting a richer array of data, if possible. So in your research career, you might come up with a single item to assess self-esteem, but you'd want to compare that to a self-esteem measure that's already validated. And so, you know, here we're going to go through the process of coming up with multiple items, multiple self-esteem items, and obviously there can be a lot of different definitions, unlike height or weight or something like that. As you could see from the start of it last week there's a lot of different ways we could look at it um and then for part three you're going to want to discuss your approach to item construction in other words describe the process you use to generate the items for the instrument so where do you start obviously your book is going to give you some guidance on this right in terms of what you need to do and we're I'd like you to come up with as part four, at least five items to include in the new self-esteem scale. And then next week during our live session, you guys are going to serve as, you know, will serve as subject matter experts. And we're going to go go through the items and try to narrow them down and, you know, throw out some, keep some. But as was mentioned earlier, this is a pretty big class. So we could have a pretty big list of items. So I may try to do a little streamlining before we meet because there are so many. But regardless, I will be using your items and we'll come up with a list of what we think are good items. Now, obviously, you can't have, like, hopefully you don't have, you know, any hard feelings about this. There's going to be some that are kept, some that are thrown out. It's all part of the process. I don't expect anybody's to be perfect. Obviously, some of it, some of them are going to be thrown out just because they're too similar to other people's. So maybe out of year five, we keep two. It doesn't, you know, it doesn't really matter. I'm not going to have names attached to any of these. And, yeah, like Shelley said, it's nothing personal. So the Rosenberg self -esteem scales are the most common. but when you come up with your five items, I don't want you to use Rosenberg's items. So you can't copy items from any other scale. It could have similar meanings, but I want you to come up with them yourself. So just, you know, think of it as we're looking to improve what's already out there. And we're going to see, how can we do it better? You know, when you're developing a new instrument, you often do, people often do go to subject matter experts and ask them if they would suggest any improvements. So, you know, like I developed some items looking at kids learning from pre-literacy materials. And if I wanted to publish that, I would want to go to some literacy experts and say, hey what do you think about these like are there any you would change the wording slightly would you take out any do you think this is measuring what we're intending to measure so that's just one stage in the validation process so we're gonna serve as that during class next week so that's always kind of a fun class because we'll get to go over items and kind of come up with a better list or a more narrow list because we'll have so many items to be choosing from. So one other thing I want to mention with Leichert scales is you would generally want to go from least to most or kind of like negative to positive. So that's kind of the direction you would be going. and some instruments have what's called reverse scoring. Does anybody know what that means when an item is reverse scored? I see I think Aubrey is shaking your head, maybe. So if you reverse score an item, it means that it is worded opposite of the other items. Great, great. So, yeah, so if we were to just add our items together to make a continuous, you know, score, like we'd get a big score, like let's say we have 20 self-esteem items, and we want to add them all up, and they range from one to five. our score, then if we added them up, would go from 20 to 100, right? So, but if we have a reverse scored item, you know, typically we would say, well, oh, the bigger the number, the more positive it is, right? Higher self-esteem. But if an item is worded the opposite, so a high number means low self-esteem, if you add it together, then it would have the opposite meaning. And so with reverse scored items, we have to do what's called reverse scoring. Now, there has been a change in the attitude about reverse scored items since I went to school. So when I went to graduate school, the thought used to be that having reverse scored items would reduce response bias. And so that was considered a good thing in an instrument that you would not like trick people, but you'd kind of catch people if they were just scoring like all fours or all fives. It was like you could reduce people, you know, reduce the number of people who were just kind of going through without thinking about it. But now the wisdom is not to reverse the items because people could get confused. And so, you know, it's generally not advised. So, you know, right now we don't do as much reverse scoring. Another issue with it is one of the steps in the process of validity and reliability of an instrument is to calculate something called internal consistency. And that's kind of how well items correlate with each other or how strongly they are related to each other. And you want your internal consistency to be high. And when you have reverse scoring, the internal consistency of the scales goes way down. So it's generally not as much of a, positive nowadays. When you're developing items, that's for number four. Another thing I'd like you to think about or to do is to avoid double negatives. So you won't want to say like, if you have two negatives in a row, you know, you just want to keep your phrasing simple. You don't want to like contradict yourself. Also, make sure you're really stay focused on self-esteem. like you don't want to have items that are causal, like, you know, looking at social media or, you know, reduces self-esteem. That would be like a causal statement. We're not going to say what impacts self-esteem. We're just going to try to measure self -esteem and possibly different aspects of self-esteem. So like you would, you know, instead of saying something like, I feel bad about myself because of how I was treated in childhood, you know, you could say something like, oh, I often, you know, feel insecure about myself or, you know, I feel better about myself when I, you know, when I have accomplishments or whatnot. So we're going to try to not have those causal kind of statements. now even though there is this issue about reverse scoring you can you should have like at least one reverse scored item you know i'm not that's not to say that we'll use it but it's just good to have practice of it even though it is more of a mixed view nowadays about reverse scoring just so that you understand it um but i want you to be writing items about at this particular moment in time things that would be just about, you know, about self-esteem. So, you know, I don't expect perfection. I'm okay with that. I try to, you know, do my best. I have fun, whatever it is, right? So be creative but scientific and try to come up with some items dealing with self-esteem. In your response to your classmates, you can comment on the strengths and weaknesses of the items and what changes you would recommend, if any. And if you want to, you know, if you want to in your, you know, after your classmates give you some response of it, if you want to update any of your items, you're welcome to do that. I won't pull out the items until, you know, Monday for our session so that we have a fresh list to deal with. Okay, so obviously part of this is all just part of the, you know, the process. There's no perfect instrument. You know, typically we would only do a new instrument if there was no other instrument. There are instruments that measure self-esteem. So the idea is just that we're trying to develop a measure that's even. better. But it's challenging. When I was in graduate school, I was working on a big study about children's television use, and we were looking at that in relation to their academic achievement and other various outcomes. And one of the things we just had, you know, it was actually quite a large study. So one of the things we wanted to look at, though, was whether watching TV related to materialism or materialistic attitudes. And we came up with some materialism items. But I have to tell you, we did not publish that. We did not use that part of the study. They were just not great items. So, you know, like a lot of people would agree with something like, you know, I like to go shopping or, you know, it makes me feel better when I go shopping or things like that, whatever. It wasn't necessarily like a good assessment of materialism. So that was kind of my first experience with it. We did not spend probably enough effort on it. We couldn't find a good materialism measure at that time. And so we tried it, but it was not a success. But I feel okay with that because, you know, a lot of other things about the study were very successful, you know, it's a study that's been cited over a thousand times. It's definitely impacted my research gate score. It's like a pretty kind of a famous study. So I was like lucky to be involved with it. But that piece of it, the piece about materialism just didn't work. So part of what, you know, we're having you guys learn is that it's not easy. You have to like test things out and there are a lot of different steps when you're creating an instrument. So you would test it with a population. Every time you test it, you throw out items. Then you kind of, you know, have your new instrument and you start over and you test it out again. And then you test it for internal consistency. You see if it works with the same people more than once, like test it. retest, assess it for reliability. You would, you know, obviously have the subject matter experts for the validity. Also assess it for construct validity, factorial validity, and content validity. So the content validity is the subject matter experts. So if you're going to do that kind of study, which again in that study I was talking about, we didn't have time to have years to work on that, because we were following up with kids who'd been in a study when they were five and they were now teenagers. So we had to catch them while they were still living at home. You know, it is something that takes a few years. And that's why we always say if you want to develop your own instrument, that's a dissertation in itself. Like you can't try to develop a new instrument and then collect data on it for all this other stuff. You might be able to, but more than likely it's just going to take so much time that that would kind of take away from being able to do other things because the whole process of creating a new instrument is so time-consuming. So next, we have a discussion this week. This should be a two -page document, again, with cover page and, you know, also have a cover page and references. So discuss the advantages and disadvantages of creating a measure for your dissertation. In other words, is it better to use a pre -existing measure that's already been validated and reliable or is it better to create your own constructs of interests that you identified in your week one assignment? Are there existing instruments available that could assess? the constructs that you were talking about? And would there be any advantages to creating your own instruments to measure those constructs? So in other words, what are the pros and cons? What are the advantages and disadvantages of creating your own instrument? And there are both, right? There are advantages of creating your own instrument and there are disadvantages of creating your own instrument. So it's really answering this overarching question of, is it better to create your own instrument or use pre-existing ones. But it's really also just an exercise to make sure you're aware and understand like kind of the pros and cons of those two different approaches. Yes, Jacey? You have a comment here? Well, I mean, those, it sounds like those items are fine as long as they're so individual. You can't combine them. You can't say, I have a successful job, loving family, and a comfortable home because that would be what's called a double-barreled question. Actually, that's triple-barreled because you have three different things. You want each person to only be answering about one thing at a time. And so if you say or and, usually that's not a good idea. But yes, I'm assuming you meant those as separate things. but, you know, you could look at different things like that. Obviously, we're going to go over, you know, some different examples next week. But when we go through the discussion, I'm not going to be giving you feedback on your items because obviously we'll talk about those in the live session. But I will, you know, more be probing you to be thinking about some of the issues, other issues that we're discussing rather than giving you individual feedback, if that makes sense. Okay. All right. So any other questions, comments? Again, with your assignment, be sure to include some peer-reviewed journal articles, scholarly books. Professional websites also are okay, like National Institute of Health, National Institute of Mental Health, APA. So, you know, just make sure you're using scholarly websites. I sometimes see people using things like simply psychology or very well-mined. Those are not considered scholarly resources. They often do talk about like a journal article or something like that, but because this is a graduate program, we want you to actually be going to the journal article. not to another site or source that's summarizing it because they often do it inaccurately. I've seen it with my own work. Like sometimes they just, you know, if somebody else is summarizing it, they don't always get it right. And obviously you want to go directly to the source. All right. Okay. So any questions or comments? comments before we wrap up. Some of the sessions we have will be a little longer, obviously when we have a working session. But on a night like tonight, if we finish a little early, I can give you a little bit of your time back. And that's not really, that's not a bad thing. But some weeks we do have to, we will be working together on the self-esteem measure. And so that's really fun. But it will, you know, take the whole hour, more than that. likely take the whole hour when we're doing that. So like next, for example, next week is more likely to be a longer session. All right. Well, I will still be here for a little bit, but if anybody has any questions or comments, if not, thank you for coming, and I will see you in the classroom, and I hope you have a great week. Thank you. night. Thank you. Good night. Yeah, I'm not sure what's going on, Daisy. Jayce, sorry about that. I'm not sure what the issue is. All right. Bye. All right. And Esther, I did mention to Dr. Wade about you having the conflict in the class time, but hopefully you're able to go to her class now because we're finished early, so that's great. Thank you. Sure, no problem. All right, bye-bye. Hi, Dr. Kelly. I hope you're doing well. How you doing? Good. How are you? Good. Hey, just really quickly, I wanted to apologize because I wanted to join last week's meeting. So I just moved to Nashville.

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