In Chapter 2, the authors describe four different approaches to organizational communication. ?In chapter 3, three early perspectives organizational com
Here is the assignment:
1) In Chapter 2, the authors describe four different approaches to organizational communication. In chapter 3, three early perspectives organizational communication are presented. Compare and contrast each of these approaches and perspectives, then identify circumstances in your personal and/or professional lives in which these approaches and perspectives are applicable. This assignment must be 3 full pages. Your assignment should be presented as a Word document, 12-point font, double-spaced, in either Times New Roman, Calibri, or Arial.
2) Your assignment should also have a cover page with your name, the due date, and the name and ID number of your class and a reference page.
NOTE:
The four different approaches to organizational communication: Communication as Information Transfer, Communication as Transactional Transfer, Communication as Strategic Control, and Communication as Creativity and Constraint.
The three early perspectives organizational perspectives: classical management, human relations, and human resources.
Reference:
Marianne LeGreco, Eric H. Eisenberg, & Angela Trethewey. (2024) Organizational Communication: Balancing Creativity and Constraint. 9th ed. Boston: Macmillan.
Four Approaches to Org. Communication
Communication as Information Transfer
Views communication as a pipeline through which information flows from one person to another.
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Four Approaches to Org. Communication
Communication as Information Transfer
Communication is a tool people use to accomplish their objectives.
It assumes:
Language can transfer thoughts and feelings from one person to another.
Speakers and writers insert thoughts and feelings into words.
Words contain the thoughts and feelings.
Listeners or readers extract the thoughts and feelings from the words.
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Four Approaches to Org. Communication
Communication as Information Transfer
“Miscommunication” occurs by:
Information overload — The receiver becomes overwhelmed by the information that must be processed.
Distortion — Noise affects the receiver’s ability to process the message. This noise can be semantic, physical, or contextual.
Ambiguity — Multiple interpretations of a message cloud the sender’s intended meaning.
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Four Approaches to Org. Communication
Communication as Information Transfer
Criticisms:
It is simplistic and incomplete, therefore limiting the scope of communication to a linear and sequential process.
The model reduces the receiver’s involvement in constructing the meaning of the message by assuming that the receiver remains passive.
It does not account for any nonverbal communication.
.
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Four Approaches to Org. Communication
Communication as Transactional Process
People act as sender and receiver simultaneously.
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Four Approaches to Org. Communication
Communication as Transactional Process
Differences from the Information Transfer Model:
Meaning of the message is not in the words but in the people.
The focus of the message is in how the receiver constructs the meaning of the message, rather than the need for the sender to transmit the meaning to others.
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Four Approaches to Org. Communication
Communication as Transactional Process
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Four Approaches to Org. Communication
Communication as Transactional Process
Criticism:
Because it places significant value on shared meaning and consensus, there is a lot more ambiguity, conflict, and diverse viewpoints in the “real world” of organizational communication.
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Four Approaches to Org. Communication
Communication as Strategic Control
Communication is used to influence and shape an environment.
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Four Approaches to Org. Communication
Communication as Strategic Control
Assumptions:
Greater clarity is not necessarily the only or main goal of interaction.
“Effective” communication is focused on goal attainment through rhetorical sensitivity of the situation.
Shared meaning is an empirically unverifiable concept and therefore not a primary motivation for communication.
The primary goal of communication should be organized action.
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Four Approaches to Org. Communication
Communication as Strategic Control
Example: WMDs in Iraq
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Four Approaches to Org. Communication
Communication as Strategic Control
Example: BP oil spill
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Four Approaches to Org. Communication
Communication as Strategic Control
Another important part of this model is strategic ambiguity: the ways people may communicate unclearly but still accomplish their goals.
Advantages (?):
Preserves privileged positions.
It is deniable.
Promotes unified diversity by taking advantage of the diverse meanings that different people can give to the same message.
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Four Approaches to Org. Communication
Communication as Strategic Control
Limitations:
Ethics are not important.
Emphasizes the behavior of individuals in controlling their environment through communication while clouding issues related to cooperation, coordination, and interdependence.
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Four Approaches to Org. Communication
Communication as Creativity and Constraint
This perspective sees organizational communication as a balance/contrast between how employees communicate to create and shape organizations and how the constraints that organizations place on that communication impact employees.
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Four Approaches to Org. Communication
Communication as Creativity and Constraint
Structuration theory: Focuses on the duality of structure, that is, structures are products of communication practices while also being bound by the rules that constructed them in the first place.
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Four Approaches to Org. Communication
Communication as Creativity and Constraint
Communication is the moment-to-moment working out of the tension between individual creativity and organizational constraint.
Out of this balancing act, creativity often emerges as the strategic response to organizational constraints.
The main advantage to this approach is the ability to consider enabling and constraining aspects of communication simultaneously.
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Classical Management Approaches
Part 1: From Empire to Hierarchy
From the 18th century to the early 20th century, organizations functioned much like empires, and were modeled after efficient machines.
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Classical Management Approaches
Part 1: From Empire to Hierarchy
One American who popularized the importance of hard work, independence, and planning and organizing was Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790).
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Classical Management Approaches
Part 1: From Empire to Hierarchy
His annual publication, Poor Richard’s Almanac, ran for 25 years (1732-1758) and contained many proverbs and sayings about the importance of work done well (among other things).
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Classical Management Approaches
Part 1: From Empire to Hierarchy
“Lost time is never found again.”
“Three may keep a secret, if two of them are dead.”
“Love your enemies, for they tell you your faults.”
“Speak little, do much.”
“Fish and visitors stink in three days.”
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Classical Management Approaches
Part 1: From Empire to Hierarchy
Frederick the Great (1712-1786) the King of Prussia, organized his armies on the principles of mechanics.
To Frederick, efficiency was the key to military success.
He standardized weapons, military units, commands, and drill instruction.
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Classical Management Approaches
Part 1: From Empire to Hierarchy
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Classical Management Approaches
Part 1: From Empire to Hierarchy
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Classical Management Approaches
Part 1: From Empire to Hierarchy
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Classical Management Approaches
Part 1: From Empire to Hierarchy
Adam Smith (1723-1790) and later, Karl Marx (1818-1883) wrote about how the division of labor and a hierarchy of management could lead to increased production and wealth.
This became known as the classical theory of management.
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Classical Management Approaches
Part 3: Scientific Management
Developed by Frederick Taylor (1856-1915), it assumes that organizational management is based on science, laws, rules, and principles.
Assumes there are optimal ways to work to produce goods and services in the most efficient manner.
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Classical Management Approaches
Part 3: Scientific Management
Example: Bethlehem Steel Company
Employees shoveled fuel using their own shovels.
Loads ranged from 3.5 to 38 lbs.
Taylor discovered a worker’s best day of work could be done if the shovel load was 21.5 lbs., so he made shovels to match the fuel load.
Tonnage of fuel moved increased from 16 to 59 tons per worker, per day.
Number of employees reduced from 500 to 140.
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Classical Management Approaches
Part 3: Scientific Management
Assumes there are optimal ways to work to produce goods and services in the most efficient manner.
Everything is based on the clock: how can a process be made to go faster?
Communication limited to orders and instructions.
Did not help bridge problems between workers and managers.
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Classical Management Approaches
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Classical Management Approaches
Part 3: Scientific Management
Did not help bridge problems between workers and managers.
Enhanced distinctions between the groups and depersonalized the workers.
Result: High employee turnover.
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Classical Management Approaches
Part 3: Scientific Management
Example: 280% employee turnover rate at Ford Motor Plant.
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Classical Management Approaches
Part 4: Fayol’s Classical Management
Henri Fayol (1841-1925) was a French industrialist who developed the five elements of classical management: planning, organizing, commanding (goal setting), coordinating, and controlling (evaluating).
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Classical Management Approaches
Part 4: Fayol’s Classical Management
Later grouped into:
Structure: Organizations should have strict hierarchies with clear chains of command.
Power: Centralized to those in authority.
Reward: Good pay for work that has been done with excellence.
Attitude: Employees should subordinate their personal interests to those of the organization.
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Classical Management Approaches
Part 5: Bureaucracy
Began as a response to protect employees from harsh employment conditions and firings based on race, sex, attitude, religion, or relationship to the boss (aka particularism).
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Classical Management Approaches
Part 5: Bureaucracy
Six characteristics:
A fixed division of labor;
A hierarchy of offices;
A set of rules that govern performance;
A rigid separation of personal life from work life;
The selection of personnel based on technical qualifications and equal treatment of all employees; and
Viewing employment as a career, and the creation of job tenure.
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Human Relations
Historical and Cultural Background
Began as the result of The Great Depression and World War II:
The Great Depression put millions out of work, made jobs scarce and allowed employers to take advantage of their workers.
World War II helped end The Great Depression by creating millions of new jobs.
It placed academics, managers, and the military in direct communication with each other.
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Human Relations
Pioneers of Human Relations
Mary Parker Follett (1868-1933) was a Boston social worker who used her experience running vocational guidance centers to develop new ideas about communication, leadership, social processes, and community.
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Human Relations
Pioneers of Human Relations
Her beliefs:
Cooperation among people working together under visionary leadership produces excellence in the workplace, in the neighborhood, and in the community.
Important to empower workers by sharing information with them.
Cooperation helps solve problems.
Organized teams are critical to task accomplishment.
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Human Relations
Pioneers of Human Relations
Elton Mayo (1880-1949) was a Harvard professor who believed that employees were not always rational and need interpersonal relationships.
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Human Relations
Pioneers of Human Relations
In contrast to scientific management theory, Mayo believed that:
Society comprises groups, not isolated individuals.
Individuals are swayed by group norms and do not act alone in accord with self-interests.
Individual decisions are not entirely rational; they are also influenced by emotions.
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Human Relations
Pioneers of Human Relations
Chester Barnard (1886-1961) was a chief executive at Bell Telephone and the author of The Functions of the Executive.
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Human Relations
Pioneers of Human Relations
He was a big believer in the need for cooperation in organizations, and that:
Cooperation = Persuading individuals to accept a common purpose.
Management role = Largely communicative and persuasive.
Effective managers = Those who communicate in ways that encourage workers to identify with the organization.
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Human Relations
Hawthorne Studies
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Human Relations
Hawthorne Studies
Conclusions:
Increased attention given to workers raises productivity; this came to be known as the Hawthorne effect.
Informal group norms can have a positive effect on productivity.
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Human Resources Approach
Human Resources
Human Resources: A perspective that considers both the total organizational climate as well as employee participation and dialogue.
Purpose: To restore good interpersonal relationships and human needs in organizations that might otherwise be too rational to be more effective.
Emphasis: The principles of formal organization, such as hierarchy and task specialization, are not in line with the developmental needs of healthy adults.
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Human Resources Approach
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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Human Resources Approach
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Finding: In order for humans to achieve their full potential (aka “self-actualization”), they must first have their basic needs satisfied.
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Human Resources Approach
Theory X and Theory Y Management
Douglas McGregor compared bureaucratic organizational principles, or Theory X, to an alternative set of principles, Theory Y.
As opposed to the classical approach that viewed employees as work hating and responsibility shirking (Theory X), McGregor insists that employees are autonomous, responsible, self-directed, and innovative participants in organizations (Theory Y).
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Human Resources Approach
Supportive Relationships
Rensis Likert (1903-1981) developed the principle of supportive relationships, which states that interactions within an organization should support the self-worth and importance of individuals.
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Human Resources Approach
Supportive Relationships
Likert divided organizations into four types, or “systems,” based upon degree of participation:
System I—exploitative/authoritative
System II—benevolent/authoritative
System III—consultative
System IV—participative
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