Provide a short explanation of bias and implicit bias using the course text. Discuss the problem with implicit bias from your personal perspective. D

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Learning Objectives

By the time you reach the end of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Describe current demographic trends that are causing an increase in cultural diversity in the United States.

2. Define the aspects of cultural identity that are important to early childhood teaching, such as race/ ethnicity, language, and socioeconomic status.

3. Explain why poverty is an aspect of cultural diversity.

4. Compare and contrast access to preschool education in the United States and in Europe.

5. Explain the ways that culture is transmitted through language and the unique strengths of dual language learners (DLLs).

6. Identify types of cultural mismatches for children and early childhood programs.

7. Describe ways to encourage cultural diversity in early childhood education.

Cultural Diversity in Early Childhood Education 1

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

Introduction

Imagine yourself walking into a 21st-century early childhood classroom in the United States. A group of chatty youngsters happily greets you at the door. Some are tall and lean, others are short and stocky. You squat down so that you are eye to eye with them. The first girl who hugs

you is wearing thick glasses and hearing aids. The children are ethnically diverse—Latino, Black, Somali, Hmong. Most of them shout, “Good morning!” but a few chime in with “¡Buenos dias!” You greet each of them in their native language as they run into your arms for hugs. You notice a boy lingering on the outskirts of the group. He is attentive, but quiet, and he’s not making direct eye contact with you or the other children. He appears to have something to say, but he can’t seem to find the words.

Clearly, the children in the classroom represent different cultural backgrounds and have different levels of English-language skills. This imaginary classroom depicts the wide range of cultural diver-

sity found in today’s early child- hood education programs. How can you, as a teacher, best incor- porate your children’s cultural experiences and their diverse language skills into the classroom learning environment?

This chapter will lay the founda- tion for early childhood teach- ers as they prepare to educate today’s diverse student popula- tion. First, we will describe the recent rise in cultural diversity across the United States, espe- cially among the preschool and school age population. Next, we define the key concepts of culture and cultural diversity, and discuss

why they are important. Third, we describe the value of language in various cultures, its important role in teacher-child interactions, and how it affects teachers’ relationships with culturally diverse children. Lastly, we discuss some ways in which early childhood educators can help prepare this upcoming generation of culturally diverse children to succeed in school.

1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

Before we discuss the rising cultural diversity within the United States, we must understand the key concepts of culture and cultural identity. Culture consists of the shared beliefs, values, expectations, rules, or patterns of behavior, goals, and practices that characterize a

group, such as a family, a community, an institution, or an organization. It includes the characteris- tic features of everyday existence (how people live their lives) shared by people in a place or time. Culture is evident in how humans do things, and it explains why we want (or feel the need) to do these things. Cultural heritage and traditions shape children’s communication practices, interests in instructional activities, and classroom behavior.

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Being a culturally competent early education instructor will allow you to help your diverse students succeed in school.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

We each have a cultural identity that can be defined by various demographic, geographic, reli- gious, or social indicators, and people can belong to several different cultural groups. For example, a child may be culturally defined as an Israeli boy from an upper-income Jewish family living in New York City, or an early childhood teacher might culturally identify with Southern African Ameri- cans from the Pentecostal Christian denomination. People’s cultural identities not only shape how they think, feel, and behave, but sometimes these identities also shape how others view them. For example, some people may have negative opinions about people with a cultural identity of a non- English-speaking immigrant working in a lower socioeconomic status job, such as a migrant farm worker. These negative opinions form the basis for prejudice and discrimination; we will talk more about prejudice and discrimina- tion in Chapter 2.

Because culture is an integral part of human nature, cultural identity is an important aspect of chil- dren’s and families’ lives, and since the United States is becoming increasingly diverse, it behooves educators to learn to appreciate cultural diversity. An informed understanding of the differences (and similarities) between cul- tures, though, requires an under- standing of what a culture is and the acknowledgement that all human beings are a product of their culture (Cole, 1992/1998). When teachers recognize how important their own culture is to themselves, they will be better able to appreciate the diverse cultural backgrounds of their stu- dents, and they will ultimately be better teachers to their students.

Factors Contributing to Cultural Diversity According to data from the Children’s Defense Fund (2023), in 2021 there were approximately 74 million children living in the United States, and more than half of them (50.64%) had Hispanic, Black, Asian, American Indian/Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, or multiracial backgrounds. The factors behind the recent growth in U.S. cultural diversity include the increases in immigration rates from non-European countries, in the number of children from non-White race and ethnic groups, in students who are dual language learners, and in the number of children living in poverty.

Immigration The number of children in immigrant families has more than doubled since 1990 (Migration Pol- icy Institute, 2021). In 2019, the top five countries of origin for immigrants were Mexico, India, China, the Philippines, and El Salvador (American Immigration Council, 2023). In 2021, 44% of immigrants described themselves as Hispanic or Latino (Ward & Batalova, 2023). As shown in Fig- ure 1.1, the number of Hispanic children living in the United States more than tripled from 1980 to

Siri Stafford/Digital Vision/Thinkstock

Increased immigration, particularly among Hispanic groups, is one factor contributing to the increased diversity of the United States.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

2021 (Children’s Defense Fund, 2023, Table 1). According to the Migration Policy Institute (2021), 25.9% of children have at least one immigrant parent. Almost all of these children (87.9%) were born in the United States and have at least one parent who was born outside the United States, which makes them second-generation immigrants, meaning they were born within the United States and are citizens. On the other hand, first-generation immigrants are people who were born in another country who migrate to the States, either as adults or as children.

Figure 1.1: Number of Hispanic Children in U.S. in 1980 and 2021

As shown in this graph, the number of Hispanic children in the United States has more than tripled since 1980.

Sources: Data from The State of America’s Children Handbook: 2012, by Children’s Defense Fund, 2012, Washington, DC, and The State of America’s Children® 2023, by Children’s Defense Fund, 2023 (https://www.childrensdefense.org/the-state-of-americas-children/soac-2023-child-population/).

This rise in immigration means that there is a greater chance that more children in early child- hood programs either have at least one parent not born in the U.S. or they themselves were not born in the U.S. In Chapter 4, we talk in detail about immigrant families and how to build on these families’ strengths and challenges when their children are enrolled in early education programs.

Because recent trends in immigration are diversifying our population quickly, we need to look next at the ways this diversity is defined, such as in terms of race and ethnicity.

Race and Ethnicity Parents are often asked to identify their child’s race and ethnic category on various forms, such as the one shown in Figure 1.2. While checking a box on a form does not provide a complete picture of a child’s or family member’s cultural identity, people are typically affiliated with the racial and ethnic groups that they choose on such forms. In other words, people choose to indicate these aspects of their cultural identity because such categories have psychological and social meaning for them. Otherwise, they would opt to not identify with such categories.

0

5

10

15

20

Number of Hispanic Children (in millions)

20211980

18.9

5.3

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

Figure 1.2: Questions on Hispanic Origin and Race From the 2020 Census

What does the information requested on this census questionnaire tell us about the U.S. government’s definitions of race and ethnicity?

Source: Decennial Census of Population and Housing Questionnaires & Instructions, by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021h (https://www.census.gov/programs -surveys/decennial-census/technical-documentation/questionnaires.2020_Census.html).

NOTE: Please answer BOTH Question 8 about Hispanic origin and Question 9 about race. For this census, Hispanic origins are not races.

8. Is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin?

9. What is Person 1’s race? Mark one or more boxes AND print origins.

No, not of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin

Yes, Mexican, Mexican Am., Chicano

Yes, Puerto Rican

Yes, Cuban

Yes, another Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin — Print, for example, Salavadoran, Dominican, Colombian, Guatemalan, Spaniard, Ecuadorian, etc.

White — Print, for example, German, Irish, English, Italian, Lebanese, Egyptian, etc.

Black or African Am. — Print, for example, African American, Jamaican, Haitian, Nigerian, Ethiopian, Somali, etc.

American Indian or Alaska Native — Print name of enrolled or prinicpal tribe(s), for example, Navajo Nation, Blackfeet Tribe, Mayan, Aztec, Native Village of Barrow Inuplat Traditional Government, Nome Eskimo Community, etc.

Chinese

Filipino

Asian Indian

Other Asian — Print for example, Pakistani, Cambodian, Hmong, etc.

Native Hawaiian

Samoan

Chamorro

Other Pacific Islander — Print, for example, Tongan, Fijian, Marshallese, etc.

Vietnamese

Korean

Japanese

Some other race — Print race or origin.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

As anyone who has filled out such a form might know, there is always a limited number of options for race and ethnicity. The United States Census Bureau, for example, which is responsible for col- lecting and reporting demographic data about the nation’s population, has defined the most prev- alent race and ethnic categories. Figure 1.2 shows the options presented for Hispanic origin and race during the 2020 census. First, people are asked to indicate their ethnicity; ethnicity is defined as having a shared nationality, language, religion, or sociopolitical history (e.g. a group’s exposure to conquest, slavery, or segregation). In other words, ethnicity is a broad cultural identifier that could describe multiple groups. Yet, the only choices for ethnic categories on the U.S. census are Hispanic versus Non-Hispanic; people of Hispanic origin can be from any racial background, and Hispanic origin refers to a heritage, nationality, or ancestral lineage.

The census also asks respondents to indicate their race; race is defined as a shared ancestral heritage that distinguishes groups of people based on physical characteristics that were once mis- takenly believed to be genetic or biological. On the census form, the specified racial categories include White, Black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Chinese, Filipino, Asian Indian, Vietnamese, Korean, Japanese, Native Hawaiian, Samoan, Chamorro, Other Asian, Other Pacific Islander, or Some Other Race. When U.S. Census Bureau analysts combine these ethnic and race categories for cross-tabulation, they result in the following:

• Hispanic or Latino • White alone non-Hispanic • Black or African American alone non-Hispanic • American Indian and Alaska Native alone non-Hispanic • Asian alone non-Hispanic • Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander alone non-Hispanic • Some Other Race alone non-Hispanic • Multiracial non-Hispanic (Jensen et al., 2021)

Despite the fact that the census describes its categories of people as “racial” groups, it is impor- tant to understand that these categories of people also represent “ethnic” groups.

The definitions of race in the United States have frequently and dramatically changed since the first census in 1790, based on public policies or population trends at different time periods, such as the legalization of slavery, the granting of citizenship rights, or the influx of new immigrants (Brown, 2020). Such changes in the way society defines race were never—and still are not—based on biol- ogy. The Spotlight on Research feature, “Scientists Were Wrong About Race,” explains how for centuries, scientists drew inaccurate conclusions about the nature of race. Categorizing people according to racial groups has no basis in biological science, because all people are the same at the genetic level. Race is more accurately defined as a social construct that was created, and has been manipulated, over time in order to shape public will and deny certain groups of people rights.

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

Spotlight on Research: “Scientists Were Wrong About Race” The modern concept of race was developed in the 17th and 18th centuries. At the time, scientists categorized humans into three main racial groups: Caucasoid (White), Negroid (Black), and Mongoloid (Asian). During that time, scientists did not understand genetic or evolutionary biology; they wrongly believed that groups of human beings who had different physical characteristics had different genes and descended from different evolutionary ancestors.

Thanks to advances in technology that have allowed us to examine the human genetic code, we now know that all people are genetically similar, no matter how different their physical appearance (Caesar & Williams, 2002). In fact, if you compare the DNA of people from each of the “racial” groups, you will find that they share over 99% of their genes (Jorde & Wooding, 2004). In addition, because of break- throughs in evolutionary science, we now know that all human beings are descendants of the same female ancestor from central Africa (Wilson & Cann, 1992).

If you want to learn more about how all humans share a common ancestor and are similar genetically, go to the PBS website, “Race: The Power of an Illusion.”

Now that you have been introduced to the social and political history of race, you can more clearly see how race and even ethnicity are social constructs; the definitions of these words are based on the political battles and immigration trends at a given time. You can also understand why people may choose to define themselves using multiple terms across the various aspects of their cultural identities.

In this book, whenever possible, we will describe groups according to their ethnicity because, compared to race, ethnicity speaks more to one’s cultural identity. Because ethnicity includes shared nationality, language, religion, and sociopolitical history, people can be described more specifically and across multiple aspects of their identity. Therefore, we might use specific terms such as Panamanian or Jamaican to describe children and families, rather than simply Latino or Black, respectively.

There are times, however, when there is a need to describe larger pan-ethnic groups that combine subgroups sharing a similar ancestral heritage, language, religion, or sociopolitical history, regard- less of their nationality. In these cases, we will use terms such as White (e.g., people of European, North African, or Middle Eastern descent, regardless of country of origin), Black (e.g., people of African descent, regardless of country of origin), Asian (e.g., people of East Asian, South Asian, and Polynesian descent), and Native American (e.g., people whose ancestors originated in precolonial United States).

Dual Language Learners Given the diversity of immigrants of different nationalities, it should not be surprising that 21.7% of the United States population speaks a language other than English at home (U.S. Census Bureau, n.d.). The children within this population are referred to as dual language learners (DLLs)—children who are acquiring two or more languages at the same time. The term DLL can encompass other terms frequently used to describe students, such as Limited English Proficient (LEP), bilingual, and English language learner (ELL).

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CHAPTER 1Section 1.1 Cultural Diversity Among Children Ages 0–8

When working with DLLs, teachers have to remember that not all DLL families share the same experiences, national customs, or even dialect. There are variations in the home languages that families speak, the ages when children were first exposed to English, their fluencies in English and their other languages, and the degrees of the families’ linguistic isolation (Espinosa, 2010).

In addition, there is wide variety across racial and ethnic groups in the percentage of the popu- lation that speaks a language other than English at home. Figure 1.3 shows that the majority of Asian and Hispanic people speak another language at home besides English, as do many American Indians and Pacific Islanders. Whites and Blacks are the least likely to speak another language besides English at home.

Figure 1.3: Percentage of the Population Speaking Another Language at Home

What does this graph show you about the cultural makeup of the United States?

Source: Data for Hispanic or Latino from Nativity by Language Spoken at Home by Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 years and Over (Hispanic or Latino) [Data set]. 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021d (https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B160 05I?q=B16005i&y=2021). Data for White alone, not Hispanic or Latino from Nativity by Language Spoken at Home by Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 years and Over (White Alone, Not Hispanic or Latino) [Data set]. 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021f (https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005H?q=B16005h&y=2021). Data for Black or African American alone from Nativity by Language Spoken at Home by Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 years and Over (Black or African American Alone) [Data set]. 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021c (https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005B?q=B16005b&y=2021). Data for American Indian and Alaska Native alone from Nativity by Language Spoken at Home by Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 years and Over (American Indian or Alaska Native Alone) [Data set]. 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021a (https://data.census.gov/table/ACS DT1Y2021.B16005C?q=B16005c&y=2021). Data for Asian alone from Nativity by Language Spoken at Home by Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 years and Over (Asian Alone) [Data set]. 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021b (https://data.census.gov /table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005D?q=B16005d&y=2021). Data for Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander alone from Nativity by Language Spoken at Home by Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 years and Over (Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander Alone) [Data set]. 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates by U.S. Census Bureau, 2021e (https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT1Y2021.B16005E?q=B16005e&y=2021).

These differences across the racial and ethnic groups can illustrate why Spanish is the second most widely spoken language in the United States, and Chinese is the third (Dietrich & Hernandez,

P er

ce n

t

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Hispanic or Latino

Black or African

American alone

White alone

American Indian and

Alaska Native alone

68.2

41.9

9.5 5.4

Asian alone

72.0

Native Hawaiian and Other

Pacific Islander

40.0

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