February 11, 2025

Define the concept of motivation and describe several major theories of motivation. 2. Identify different types of psychosocial needs. 3. Describe Maslow’s hi

Psychology 0

1. Define the concept of motivation and describe several major theories of motivation.

2. Identify different types of psychosocial needs.

3. Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and identify the needs at each level in the hierarchy.

4. Explain how hunger and appetite are regulated.

5. Identify causal factors in obesity.

6. Identify and describe the types and causes of eating disorders.

7. Identify and describe the four phases of the sexual response cycle.

8. Describe how researchers characterize the continuum of sexual orientation.

9. Describe the causes of sexual dysfunctions.

10. Identify the three components of emotions and the six basic emotional expressions.

11. Describe the roles of gender and cultural factors in emotions.

12. Identify factors involved in human happiness.

13. Explain how the brain processes emotions.

14. Describe the major theories of emotion and identify the major theorists.

15. Define emotional intelligence and evaluate its importance.

16. Describe the polygraph technique and evaluate its reliability.

17. Apply techniques of anger management for controlling anger.

Essentials of Psychology: Concepts and Applications, 6e Chapter 8: Motivation and Emotion

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Icebreaker

Each student is asked to reflect upon the following questions to begin thinking about concepts related to motivation and emotion.

Why did you come to class today?

Were there other things you wanted to do instead?

What ultimately influenced your decision to be in class?

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Chapter Objectives (1 of 4)

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

08.01 Define the concept of motivation and describe several major theories of motivation.

08.02 Identify different types of psychosocial needs.

08.03 Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and identify the needs at each level in the hierarchy.

08.04 Explain how hunger and appetite are regulated.

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Chapter Objectives (2 of 4)

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

08.05 Identify causal factors in obesity.

08.06 Identify and describe the types and causes of eating disorders.

08.07 Identify and describe the four phases of the sexual response cycle.

08.08 Describe how researchers characterize the continuum of sexual orientation.

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Chapter Objectives (3 of 4)

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

08.09 Describe the causes of sexual dysfunctions.

08.10 Identify the three components of emotions and the six basic emotional expressions.

08.11 Describe the roles of gender and cultural factors in emotions.

08.12 Identify factors involved in human happiness.

08.13 Explain how the brain processes emotions.

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Chapter Objectives (4 of 4)

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

08.14 Describe the major theories of emotion and identify the major theorists.

08.15 Define emotional intelligence and evaluate its reliability.

08.16 Describe the polygraph technique and evaluate its reliability.

08.17 Apply techniques of anger management for controlling anger.

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Module 8.1

Motivation: The “Whys” of Behavior

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Biological Sources of Motivation (1 of 4)

Motivation refers to factors that activate, direct, and sustain goal-directed behavior.

Motives are the “whys” of behavior – the needs or wants that drive goal-directed behavior.

We infer motives from behavior, as we cannot directly observe them.

Instinct theory proposes that behavior is motivated by instincts.

Instinctive behaviors are genetically programmed, innate patterns of response that are specific to members of a particular species.

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Biological Sources of Motivation (2 of 4)

Examples of instinctive behavior in other species include:

Chicks open their mouths wide when the mother returns to the nest.

A kangaroo rat performs an escape jump when it hears the sound of a striking rattlesnake.

Do instincts motivate human behavior?

Sigmund Freud, William James, and William McDougall all believed that aspects of human behavior were motivated by physical and mental instincts.

However, psychologists today recognize that human behavior is much more variable and flexible than would be if it were determined by instinct.

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Biological Sources of Motivation (3 of 4)

By the early 1950s, drive theory replaced instinct theory as the major model of human motivation.

Drive theory posits that behavior is motivated by drives that arise from biological needs that demand satisfaction. Drive theory is based on the principles of homeostasis, the tendency of the body to maintain a steady internal state.

A need is a state of deprivation or deficiency.

A drive is a state of bodily tension, such as hunger or thirst, that arises from an unmet need.

The satisfaction of a drive is called drive reduction.

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Biological Sources of Motivation (4 of 4)

Harry Harlow’s research suggested that humans and many other animals have innate, biologically based needs for exploration and activity.

He termed these internal states stimulus motives.

Arousal theory proposes that whenever the level of stimulation dips below an organism’s optimal level, the organism seeks ways of increasing it.

The optimal level of arousal varies from person to person.

Some people need to engage in highly stimulating activities, such as bungee jumping and snowboarding, while others prefer to read a book or work in the garden.

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Psychological Sources of Motivation (1 of 3)

According to incentive theory, out attraction to particular goals or objects motivates much of our behavior. In contrast with drive theory, incentive theory proposes that incentives motivate us by pulling us toward them.

Incentives are rewards or other stimuli that motivate us to act.

The strength of the ”pull” that a goal or reward exerts on our behavior is its incentive value.

Cultural influences play a large role in determining incentive values.

Some cultures place emphasis on individual achievement; others place emphasis on meeting obligations to one’s family.

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Psychological Sources of Motivation (2 of 3)

Psychosocial needs reflect interpersonal aspects of motivation, such as the need for friendship or achievement.

One of the most widely studied psychosocial needs is the need for achievement. Achievement motivation develops early in life and is strongly influenced by parents.

The need for achievement is driven by extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, or a combination of both.

Extrinsic motivation refers to the desire for external rewards, such as money.

Intrinsic motivation refers to a desire for internal gratification, such as self-satisfaction upon reaching a goal.

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Psychological Sources of Motivation (3 of 3)

In achievement situations, we may be pulled in opposite directions by achievement motivation (desire to achieve success) and avoidance motivation (the desire to avoid failure).

Achievement motivation leads us to undertake challenges that run the risk of failure but may also lead to success.

Avoidance motivation may reduce the chance of failure, but at the cost of limiting the likelihood of success.

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Discussion Activity 1

Which theory of motivation best explains why students work hard to receive good grades? Why?

What motivates you to attend classes, study, and try to perform well in your courses?

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Think-Pair-Share Activity 1

Students pair up and answer the following questions:

When are extrinsic rewards effective? Provide examples from your life.

When are intrinsic rewards likely to be effective? Provide examples from your life.

Do you think you are more driven by extrinsic motivation or intrinsic motivation?

Student pairs should then share their answers with the class.

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The Hierarchy of Needs (1 of 3)

Humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow proposed a model of motivation that is called the hierarchy of needs. This model proposes that there is an order to human needs, which starts with basic biological needs and progresses to self-actualization.

Maslow’s hierarchy of basic needs consists of five levels:

Physiological needs

Safety needs

Love and belongingness needs

Esteem needs

The need for self-actualization

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The Hierarchy of Needs (2 of 3)

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The Hierarchy of Needs (3 of 3)

While Maslow’s hierarchical model has an intuitive appeal, our needs may not be ordered in as fixed a manner as the hierarchy suggests.

Another concern with this model is that the same behavior may reflect multiple needs.

You may be attending university to satisfy all five needs.

Later in his career, Maslow proposed other needs motivate human behavior, including cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, and self-transcendence.

Despite the limitations, Maslow’s model leads us to recognize that human behavior is motivated by both satisfying basic needs and higher pursuits.

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Written Assignment Activity 1

Maslow expanded his hierarchy of five basic needs to include three other needs that serve to motivate human behavior: cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, and self-transcendence.

Where do these other needs fit in the hierarchy?

How can the revised hierarchy of needs be used to enhance education and learning?

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Module 8.2

Hunger and Eating

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What Makes Us Hungry? (1 of 2)

Hunger is one of the most basic drives.

While you may think that hunger pangs arise from stomach grumblings, specific structures in the brain regulate hunger.

The lateral hypothalamus is a region of the hypothalamus that is involved in initiating, or “turning on,” eating.

The ventromedial hypothalamus is a region of the hypothalamus that signals satiety and works like the “off switch” for eating.

Neurotransmitters and hormones involved in regulating hunger and appetite include neuropeptide Y and leptin.

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What Makes Us Hungry? (2 of 2)

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Discussion Activity 2

What is the difference between hunger and appetite?

How can you differentiate between “brain hunger” and “stomach hunger?”

How do your eating habits and schedule impact hunger?

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Obesity: A National Epidemic (1 of 4)

An imbalance between calories consumed and calories burned leads to the accumulation of body weight.

More Americans are either overweight or obese than ever before, largely due to eating too much and getting too little exercise.

Obesity is a major health risk factor for morbidity and mortality.

Causal factors contributing to obesity include ready access to high-calorie foods, reduced demands for physical activity in the workplace, increased sedentary activities, and genetics.

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Obesity: A National Epidemic (2 of 4)

Body weight is influenced by a person’s basal metabolic rate (BMR), the rate at which the body burns calories while at rest.

Genetic variations help explain why some people have a slower metabolic rate than others, which leads to the accumulation of more fat in their bodies.

The set point theory proposes that brain mechanisms regulate body weight around a genetically predetermined “set point.”

This theory states that when we gain or lose weight, the brain adjusts its basal metabolic rate to keep the body weight around a set point.

This may explain why people find it hard to continue to lose more weight or maintain the weight they have lost.

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Obesity: A National Epidemic (3 of 4)

In addition to biological factors, other factors that contribute to being overweight or obese include:

Behavioral factors, such as eating larger portions, eating until feeling stuffed, and habits such as eating quickly.

Environmental factors such as exposure to food advertisements.

Emotional states, such as anger, fear, and depression, which can lead to excessive eating.

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Obesity: A National Epidemic (4 of 4)

Suggestions for maintaining a healthy weight:

Watch your fat intake.

Control portion size.

Slow down your eating.

Count your bites.

Beware of hidden calories.

Make physical activity a part of your lifestyle.

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Written Reflection Activity 1

Students are asked to brainstorm a list of activities that are best performed on an empty or full stomach, and why.

For example, it is best to eat before going grocery shopping. Research has shown people make more junk food impulse purchases if they are hungry while shopping.

Students should compile a list of three activities and provide a rationale for their choices.

Students should then discuss how these behavioral choices contribute to maintaining a healthy weight.

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Eating Disorders (1 of 2)

Anorexia nervosa affects between 1-2 percent of women in the U.S. at some point in their lifetimes. Prevalence rates among men are lower, about 0.12 percent.

Anorexia nervosa involves self-starvation resulting in an unhealthy and potentially dangerously low body weight.

Anorexia nervosa is a dangerous medical condition and can lead to serious health complications, including cardiovascular and gastrointestinal problems . Between 5-20 percent of cases result in death.

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Eating Disorders (2 of 2)

Bulimia nervosa affects slightly less than 0.5 percent of women in the U.S. Prevalence rates among men are lower, about 0.08 percent.

Bulimia nervosa is characterized by a repetitive pattern of binge-eating followed by purging through self-induced vomiting or the use of laxatives.

Repeated purging, especially self-induced vomiting, can lead to serious health complications, including esophageal damage, decay of tooth enamel, and gastrointestinal disorders.

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Causal Factors in Eating Disorders

A principal factor is social pressure to achieve an unrealistic standard of thinn

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Define the concept of motivation and describe several major theories of motivation. 2. Identify different types of psychosocial needs. 3. Describe Maslow’s hi

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