The Tuskegee Experiment
Topic: The Tuskegee Experiment
Find information from your text and/or from other reputable sources. Provide a brief, yet thorough overview of the experiment and the ethical problems involved in the scenario. Cite your sources.
Discuss which of the three major principles from the Belmont Report (1. Respect for Persons, 2. Benficience, 3. Justice) are violated in the situation you chose. Discuss all that are applicable. This requires that you not only identify the principle but explain how/why it was violated.
Discuss how the requirement of Informed Consent is essential to preventing the ethical issues you have identified and how it's requirement in your chosen situation would now protect a participant.
Resources
The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition Chapter 3: Behavioral Research
Historical Context for Ethical Guidelines (1 of 5)
Tuskegee syphilis study.
Nuremberg Code.
Nazi experiments on prisoners.
Guidelines developed to specify standards for research on humans.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-1: Describe the purpose of ethics in behavioral research.
Historical Context for Ethical Guidelines
Tuskegee syphilis study.
Nuremberg Code
Nazis conducted experiments on people in concentration camps.
Nuremberg Code: The guidelines developed by officials involved in the Nuremberg trials in an early attempt to specify ethical standards for any research involving human participants.
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Historical Context for Ethical Guidelines (2 of 5)
Nuremberg Code.
Informed consent of study participants.
Coercion is taking away rights of participants to refuse or end a study.
Nuremberg Code states:
Participation is voluntary.
Researchers must be qualified and avoid harm.
Participants have the right to exit the study.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
3
LO 3-1: Describe the purpose of ethics in behavioral research.
Informed consent: The informing of participants about a study and then gaining their consent for participation.
Coercion: The unethical practice of taking away the participants’ right to refuse or end participation in a study.
The Nuremberg Code states:
Participation is voluntary and participants must be informed of risks.
Research must contribute to knowledge and be conducted by qualified researchers.
Researchers must avoid unnecessary harm.
Participants have the right to exit the study.
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Historical Context for Ethical Guidelines (3 of 5)
APA Code
Codified in 1953.
International associations have adopted similar codes.
Overlaps with Nuremberg Code but includes:
Researchers must avoid deception.
Researchers must ensure confidentiality.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
4
LO 3-1: Describe the purpose of ethics in behavioral research.
APA Code
Codified in 1953.
International psychologists’ associations have codified similar ethics codes.
Overlaps with the Nuremberg Code, but two other elements include:
Researchers must reduce harm due to deception (misleading participants about purpose/procedures).
Researchers must ensure confidentiality of participant data.
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Historical Context for Ethical Guidelines (4 of 5)
APA Code
Milgram Obedience Study.
Investigated if people would harm another based on orders from authority.
Confederates played the part of participants.
Real participants ordered to shock confederates.
Nearly two-thirds of participants administered shocks.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-1: Describe the purpose of ethics in behavioral research.
Milgram (1962) Obedience Study
Stanley Milgram investigated how many people would harm another person because an authority figure told them to do so (post Nuremberg defendants’ assertion that they were just following orders).
Participants administered a memory task to a second participant (actually a confederate).
Confederate: The person in a study who plays the part of being a participant.
When the confederate answered incorrectly during the memory test, participants were instructed to deliver an electric shock (not actually delivered, but participants believed they were).
Almost two-thirds of the participants administered all the shocks.
Critics:
The stress and deception were psychologically harmful.
It is unclear whether the participants felt they could withdraw from the study if they wished.
5
Historical Context for Ethical Guidelines (5 of 5)
APA Code
Zimbardo Prison Experiment.
Mock prison where students assigned to play prisoners and guards.
Study stopped after a few days.
Debriefing to discuss purpose and benefits of a study after it ended.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
6
LO 3-1: Describe the purpose of ethics in behavioral research.
Zimbardo (1974) Prison Experiment
Phillip Zimbardo and his colleagues at Stanford were interested in how the roles we hold in our society affect our behavior toward others.
He created a mock prison and randomly assigned students to play the role of prisoner or guard; only difference between prisoner and guard groups was the role they were randomly assigned to play.
Stopped the study after only a few days when he realized it had become harmful (e.g., extreme stress reactions, cruelty, losing reality).
Debriefing: A process of discussing the purpose of a study and its benefits with the participants after the study has ended.
Critics:
Participants should not have been placed in such a stressful situation.
It was difficult for those involved in the study to be objective.
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Current Ethical Guidelines for Human Participants Research (1 of 7)
APA Ethics Code guides research.
Belmont Report lists responsibilities of researchers, rights of participants.
Respect for persons, beneficence, and justice.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-2: Identify current ethical guidelines for human research.
Current Ethical Guidelines for Human Participants Research
APA Ethics Code guidelines for research.
Belmont Report—Report created after the Tuskegee syphilis study that lists responsibilities of researchers as they conduct research with human participants and the rights of those participants before, during, and after a study.
Three major principles: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice.
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Current Ethical Guidelines for Human Participants Research (2 of 7)
Respect for Persons
Treatment of participants.
Participants must be informed.
Consent form is given to read and sign.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
8
LO 3-2: Identify current ethical guidelines for human research.
Respect for Persons
The treatment of participants in research studies.
Informed consent—informing participants about the nature of participation (e.g., what they will do, purpose, risks, benefits, alternative treatments, participants’ rights).
Consent form: A form administered to participants that they must read and sign to participate and which includes information about the study.
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Current Ethical Guidelines for Human Participants Research (3 of 7)
Respect for Persons
Special protections for those who may not fully comprehend information.
Participants must be volunteers.
Ethical dilemma for participants who feel coerced.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-2: Identify current ethical guidelines for human research.
Special protections for participants who may not be able to fully comprehend the information (e.g., children, persons with certain disabilities or illnesses).
Participants must volunteer to participate.
Ethical dilemma for participants who may feel coerced (e.g., participants who incarcerated, non-English-speaking participants, children/others with legal guardianship).
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Current Ethical Guidelines for Human Participants Research (4 of 7)
Beneficence
Reduction of risk of harm compared to the benefits of the study.
Risk–benefit analysis.
Risk of harm should be reduced as much as possible.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
10
LO 3-2: Identify current ethical guidelines for human research.
Beneficence
Beneficence—The reduction of risk of harm to the participants as compared with the benefit of the study.
Risk–benefit analysis: The weighing of the risks against the benefits of a research study.
Risk of harm to participants should be reduced as much as possible.
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Current Ethical Guidelines for Human Participants Research (5 of 7)
Beneficence
Types of risks:
Physical, psychological, reputational, social, and emotional.
Confidentiality is the responsibility to protect identity and privacy.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-2: Identify current ethical guidelines for human research.
Types of risks:
Physical.
Psychological.
Reputational.
Social.
Emotional.
Confidentiality: A researcher’s responsibility to protect a participant’s identity and privacy (e.g., the data of the study should be stored securely).
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Current Ethical Guidelines for Human Participants Research (6 of 7)
Justice
Researchers must ensure beneficial treatment and harmful conditions are chosen fairly.
Special considerations for certain groups.
Most research conducted with homogenous samples.
Online platforms help create diversity.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
12
LO 3-2: Identify current ethical guidelines for human research.
Justice
Researchers must ensure all participants have a fair chance of receiving potentially beneficial treatments (e.g., treatments for mental illnesses) and that potentially harmful conditions are not exclusively administered to a specific group.
Special considerations must be provided for groups that may be easier to manipulate (e.g., individuals with illnesses, low-income individuals).
Most human subjects research is conducted with homogenous samples (White, middle-class).
Use of online platforms to conduct research helps create diverse samples.
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Current Ethical Guidelines for Human Participants Research (7 of 7)
Example
Mihai et al. study on possible treatments for alcohol abuse.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
13
LO 3-2: Identify current ethical guidelines for human research.
An Example
Mihai et al.’s (2006) study on a possible treatment for alcohol abuse.
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Institutional Review Boards (1 of 8)
Committee that oversees research to ensure ethical practices.
Must have at least five qualified members.
Instruct researchers if revisions are required.
Exempt, expedited, and full review.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-3: Evaluate research studies for their adherence to ethical guidelines.
Institutional Review Boards
Institutional Review Board (IRB): A committee that oversees the research conducted at a site or done by researchers affiliated with an institution in order to ensure that ethical guidelines are adhered to in research with human participants.
At least five qualified members.
Instruct researchers if revisions are required (or can simply disapprove of the study).
Three categories of IRB review: exempt, expedited, and full review.
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Institutional Review Boards (2 of 8)
Exempt Studies
Studies with smallest amount of risk to participants.
Given brief initial review then exempt from further reviews.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-3: Evaluate research studies for their adherence to ethical guidelines.
Exempt Studies
Studies with the smallest amount of risk involved (e.g., educational/cognitive testing, archival studies, research conducted in educational settings for educational purposes).
Given a brief review and then assigned exempt status, meaning they are exempt from further review as long as the procedures do not change.
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Institutional Review Boards (3 of 8)
Expedited Studies
Studies that minimal risks.
Only reviewed by one member of the board, may involve small physical/psychological risk.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-3: Evaluate research studies for their adherence to ethical guidelines.
Expedited Studies
Studies that involve minimal risk (e.g., those involving noninvasive medical procedures, collection of blood by normal means, taping observations, and minimally affective survey/questionnaire studies).
Only reviewed one member of the IRB. Expedited studies may involve a small amount of physical or psychological risk.
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Institutional Review Boards (4 of 8)
Full-Review Studies
Studies with highest amount of risk.
Each member of the IRB reviews the research proposal.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
17
LO 3-3: Evaluate research studies for their adherence to ethical guidelines.
Full-Review Studies
Studies with the highest amount of risk, often involving a special population with a risk of harm (e.g., studies with risk to children/other individuals who may not be able to provide informed consent on their own and those involving invasive medical procedures or high psychological risk).
Each member of the IRB reviews the research proposal.
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Institutional Review Boards (5 of 8)
Criteria for IRB Approval
Researcher minimizes unnecessary risk.
Risk is justified by potential benefits.
Selection of participants is appropriate.
Documented informed consent process.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-3: Evaluate research studies for their adherence to ethical guidelines.
Criteria for IRB Approval
The researcher minimizes unnecessary risk to the participants.
The risk in the study is justified by the potential benefits of the study.
The selection of the participants is fair and appropriate for the study.
An informed consent process is included in the study and can be documented by the researcher.
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Institutional Review Boards (6 of 8)
Criteria for IRB Approval
Monitoring of collection of data to ensure safety.
Privacy and confidentiality is protected.
Procedures included to protect rights of special participant groups.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-3: Evaluate research studies for their adherence to ethical guidelines.
The researcher monitors collection of the data to ensure the safety of the participants during the course of the study.
The privacy and confidentiality of the participants is protected by the researcher.
If a special participant group is included in the study, procedures must be included to protect the rights of these participants.
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Institutional Review Boards (7 of 8)
Deception and Debriefing
APA Ethics Code requires justification for deception and debriefing.
Demand characteristics are a source of bias based on perception of purpose.
Not telling participants hypothesis is not deception.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-3: Evaluate research studies for their adherence to ethical guidelines.
Deception and Debriefing
APA Ethics Code requires sufficient justification for studies involving deception and a debriefing process in all studies.
Demand characteristics: A source of bias where the participants may alter their behavior based on their perception of the study’s purpose or hypothesis (e.g., indirect/implicit memory research).
Describing a test without mentioning its relation to studied items or not telling participants the hypothesis is not the same as deception.
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Institutional Review Boards (8 of 8)
An example.
Middlemist et al.’s field experiment on urination behavior of college males.
Field study conducted in normal environment.
Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI)
Many IRBs require online CITI training.
Example is Social/Behavioral Research Course.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-3: Evaluate research studies for their adherence to ethical guidelines.
An Example
Middlemist et al.’s (1976) field experiment of urination behaviors in college males.
Field experiment: A study conducted in a normal, everyday environment.
Collaborative institutional Training Initiative (CITI)
Many IRBs require researchers to complete the online CITI training modules.
Example: Social/Behavioral Research Course in CITI.
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Current Ethical Guidelines for Nonhuman Animal Subjects (1 of 7)
Animals often used when procedures won’t allow for humans.
Only 7–8 percent of psychological research involves animals.
APA Ethics Code has specific criteria for animal studies.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-4: Compare ethical guidelines for research with human and nonhuman subjects.
Current Ethical Guidelines for Nonhuman Animal Subjects
Animals are often used as subjects when procedures are too invasive/difficult for human participants.
However, only about 7–8 percent of all psychological research involves animal subjects.
APA Ethics Code’s specific criteria for animal studies: justification, personnel, care and housing, acquisition of the animals, and procedures.
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Current Ethical Guidelines for Nonhuman Animal Subjects (2 of 7)
Justification
Clear scientific purpose for the study.
Justification of the use of species chosen.
Risk–benefit analysis required.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-4: Compare ethical guidelines for research with human and nonhuman subjects.
Justification
Justification must include a clear scientific purpose for the study (must contribute important knowledge of behavior for humans or other animals).
Justification of the use of the species chosen for the study.
A risk–benefit analysis is required.
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Current Ethical Guidelines for Nonhuman Animal Subjects (3 of 7)
Personnel
Researchers must be trained to ensure quality.
Proper care of the animals during study.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-4: Compare ethical guidelines for research with human and nonhuman subjects.
Personnel
Researchers must be trained in the procedures to ensure that quality research is conducted and that effects on the animals are correctly anticipated.
Researchers must be able to properly care for the animals during the course of the study.
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Current Ethical Guidelines for Nonhuman Animal Subjects (4 of 7)
Care and Housing of the Animals
Proper care before, during, and after the study.
Animal Welfare Act sets standard for care of animals.
Researchers must meet or exceed USDA guidelines.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-4: Compare ethical guidelines for research with human and nonhuman subjects.
Care and Housing of the Animals
Researchers and institutions are responsible for the proper care of the animal subjects before, during, and after a research study.
Animal Welfare Act—Specific standards for the acquisition, housing, and care of animals in the United States.
Researchers must meet/exceed the USDA guidelines for care of animals (humane care and housing, enrichment).
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Current Ethical Guidelines for Nonhuman Animal Subjects (5 of 7)
Acquisition of the Animals
Animals must be obtained following USDA regulation and local laws.
Proper care during transport.
Wild animals must be obtained humanely and lawfully.
Rules regarding endangered species.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-4: Compare ethical guidelines for research with human and nonhuman subjects.
Acquisition of the Animals
Animals not bred by the researcher’s institution must be obtained in a manner that follows USDA regulations and local ordinances.
Researchers must ensure proper care of animals in transport.
Animals taken from the wild must be obtained humanely and lawfully.
Rules regarding the use of endangered/threatened species must be followed.
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Current Ethical Guidelines for Nonhuman Animal Subjects (6 of 7)
Procedures Used in the Study
Discomfort must be minimized as much as possible.
Monitoring for unanticipated negative effects.
Animals cannot be released into the wild after the study.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-4: Compare ethical guidelines for research with human and nonhuman subjects.
Procedures Used in the Study
If animals experience pain, their discomfort should be minimized as much as possible (e.g., anesthesia).
Animals must be monitored for unanticipated negative effects (e.g., body weight falling below a set criterion).
Animals cannot be released into the wild after the study to ensure they do not disturb the ecosystem.
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Current Ethical Guidelines for Nonhuman Animal Subjects (7 of 7)
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
Oversees research conducted with animal subjects.
Justification is particularly important.
Debate over issue of discomfort.
An example.
Nuseir et al.’s study on areas of the brain involved in pain perception.
McBride, The Process of Research in Psychology 5th Edition. © 2024 SAGE Publishing.
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LO 3-4: Compare ethical guidelines for research with human and nonhuman subjects.
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee
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